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n 







A GRAMMAR OF THE LATIN 
LANGUAGE 



USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 



E. A. ANDREWS and S. STODDARD 



BEVISED BY 

HENKY PEEBLE 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF GREEK AND LATIN AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY 






<tl 




BOSTON 
HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY 

New York: 11 East Seventeenth Street 

($5e iiitar£i&e #re?& CamfcutJ0e 



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Copyright, 1857, 
By Crocker & Brewster. 

Copyright, 1885, 
By Julia H. Wilson, Ellen A. Andrews, Elizabeth C. Ortiz, and Mart Andrews. 

Copyright, 1888, 

By Julia H. Wilson, Ellen A. Andrews, Elizabeth C. Ortiz, Mary Andrews, and 

Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 



All rights reserved. 



The Riverside Press, Cambridge : 
Electrotyped and Printed by H. 0. Houghton and Company. 



PEEEACE. 



When I acceded to the request of the publishers and the 
owners of the copyright of Andrews and Stoddard's Latin 
Grammar, that I should revise that work, I had no idea that 
the new book would be so unlike the original. In the thirty 
years, however, since the Grammar was last revised, opinions 
have changed a good deal as to what the contents of such a 
book should be, and how they should be presented, and our 
knowledge of the Latin language has made very great progress. 
I have consequently found myself driven further and further 
from the earlier form of the Grammar ; but the apprehension I 
naturally felt at this result has been relieved somewhat by the 
fact that the learned authors of the original work confess to a 
similar experience. In justification of my procedure I cannot 
do better than quote the following words from their preface : — 

" The Grammar here presented to the public originated in a de- 
sign, formed several years since, of preparing a new edition of 
Adam's Latin Grammar, with such additions and corrections as the 
existing state of classical learning plainly demanded. We had not 
proceeded far in the execution of this purpose, before we were im- 
pressed with the conviction, which our subsequent researches contin- 
ually confirmed, that the defects in that manual were so numerous 
and of so fundamental a character that they could not be removed 
without a radical change in the plan of the work. . . . Instead, there- 
fore, of prosecuting our original purpose, we at length determined to 
mould our materials into a form corresponding with the advanced 
state of Latin and Greek philology." 

Most of the old paradigms have been retained, and others 
have sometimes been added. In the case of the regular verb 
I have printed the four conjugations side by side, because when 
thus placed they are more easily seen to be really varieties of 
one conjugation, and their forms are more easily implanted in 
the memory than when learned in four isolated groups. 



IV PREFACE. 

Many of the old examples also remain, and many new ones 
have been introduced. Those quoted from the Latin authors I 
have assigned, when possible, to their exact sources ; but in va- 
rious instances, especially among the examples retained from 
the earlier Grammar, I have been unable, with the time at my 
command, to discover the precise reference. It has seemed to 
me best not to sacrifice instructive examples on this account, 
but to leave them, as in the older editions, simply accredited to 
their respective authors. 

The general sequence of topics has not been greatly altered. 
The most important changes are the following : The sections 
treating of Word-Formation have been gathered into one place 
— between Inflection and Syntax — instead of being distributed 
among the different parts of speech in connection with their in- 
flection. This treatment of Word-Formation I have tried to 
make more effective by giving the pupil, where it could be done, 
some insight into the processes of the growth of words rather 
than merely classifying derivatives according to their apparent 
endings. The treatment of adverbs (except their comparison), 
and of prepositions and other particles, as not properly belong- 
ing to Inflection, has been transferred partly to Word-Formation, 
partly to Syntax. The rules of quantity have been brought into 
the early part of the book instead of being relegated to Versifica- 
tion, because they seem to me necessary to a reasonable accuracy 
in pronunciation, which, if neglected at the start, tends to a dis- 
tressing slovenliness very hard to correct later. While the rules 
of agreement for adjectives and pronouns remain in their old 
place at the beginning of Syntax, I have postponed the rest of 
the syntax of such words till after the treatment of the cases, in 
order to secure a more natural progression in the study of syn- 
tactic details. 

No attempt has been made to retain the old numbering of the 
sections, for the necessary insertion of new matter would have 
resulted in exhausting the patience of both teacher and pupil by 
a complicated system of references. The book has been divided 
only into sections and subsections, with occasional notes, the three 
kinds of divisions being distinguished by type of different sizes. 



PREFACE. V 

The main sections sometimes consist of two or three numbered 
paragraphs. This arrangement allows the most detailed refer- 
erence without the use of longer indications than 323, 2, b, or 
168, c, Note 1. 

In the matter of pronunciation I have made no reference to 
the so-called English method. The time seems ripe for sparing 
the teacher the necessity of choosing between a system accepted 
by the scholarly world as substantially correct and one which, 
though still somewhat sheltered by a conservative tradition, 
makes the mastery of quantity and even of word-formation 
unnecessarily difficult. 

The third declension is a stumbling-block in the young learn- 
er's progress, because he does not readily see any resemblance 
between the nouns there treated, such as appears in the other 
declensions. This is due partly to the varied aspect of the con- 
sonant-stems, and partly to the mixing of i-stem forms with con- 
sonant-stem forms. Both the strict grouping by stems and the 
division according to the form of the nominative singular given 
in certain German grammars are unsatisfactory, because the 
groups cross each other, and thus destroy the unity of classifica- 
tion. I have tried to meet the difficulty by grouping the conso- 
nant-stems simply according to their behavior toward the let- 
ter s, and by presenting the i-stems in a progressive series, 
showing different stages in the absorption of consonant-stem 
forms. 

The obscurity which envelops the subjunctive mood I have 
tried to render as slightly opaque as possible. Examples have 
been supplied with rather unusual copiousness, because I believe 
that the contemplation of examples is the surest way to acquire 
a feeling for the subtle differences between the subjunctive and 
the indicative, especially in those uses in which it seems to the 
novice as if the ancients employed either mood quite indiffer- 
ently. 

With regard to the arrangement of words in sentences, my 
own studies have led me to views somewhat at variance with 
those commonly held. My reasons for the difference, in its 
most important detail, I have explained briefly in a footnote on 



VI PREFACE. 

page 382, and I venture to trust that they may be found con- 
vincing. 

Throughout the revision I have tried to keep in mind the 
needs of the beginner, and when it has been necessary to intro- 
duce the results of modern philological research, I have tried to 
state them as simply and definitely as possible. At the same 
time, I have endeavored to furnish the more advanced pupil 
with all that is essential to his work both at school and in col- 
lege, until the time when an exhaustive grammar becomes a 
necessity to him. I have especially aimed at treating the more 
difficult topics in such a way as to be clear, while leaving as 
little as possible to be unlearned when the pupil's study becomes 
more mature and scientific. Thus, among many things, I have 
followed the growing custom of German scholars in abandoning 
the character j, while retaining the distinction between u and V. 

A mass of rare exceptions to rules and of small irregularities 
in the linguistic usage of the less known Latin writers has been 
excluded from the present book. Such details are an unneces- 
sary encumbrance in a grammar intended for student use rather 
than exhaustive reference, and they are accessible to those who 
need them in larger grammars and lexicons. This retrenchment 
has, however, failed to reduce the volume of the book, because 
of the improvement in the size of the type which the publishers 
have been good enough to make for me. 

Whatever books seemed likely to help me have, of course, 
been freely brought into service, but I may mention, as of par- 
ticularly constant assistance, Kiihner's " Ausfuhrliche Gram- 
matik der lateinischen Sprache," A. Goldbacher's " Lateinische 
Grammatik fur Schulen," Allen and Green ough's " Latin Gram- 
mar," and Anton Marx's " Hiilfsbiichlein fur die Aussprache 
der lateinischen Vokale in positionslangen Silben." To H. J. 
Roby's Latin Grammar I am indebted for many examples in 
illustration of the uses of the subjunctive, and to W. Bram- 
bach's " Hiilfsbiichlein fur lateinische Rechtschreibung " for the 
treatment of prepositions in compounds. Other books from 
which I have derived profit will be found quoted in the body of 
the Grammar. 



PREFACE. Vll 

I would express my sincere thanks to my friends Professor 
F. D. Allen and Mr. A. L. K. Volkmann for their kindly criti- 
cism and valuable suggestions, and to my friend Professor J. B. 
Greenough for his generous encouragement and many useful 
hints. I also take pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness 
to Mr. John Tetlow, head-master of the Girls' Latin and High 
Schools of Boston, and to Mr. L. C. Hull, of the Lawrenceville 
Academy at Lawrenceville, New Jersey, for their kindness in 
reading my manuscript and in making suggestions by which the 
Grammar has profited not a little. In verifying the references 
and some of the examples I have been greatly aided by Mr. H. 
W. Haley and Mr. F. W. Nicolson of the graduate department 
of Harvard University. 

HENRY PREBLE. 



NOTE. 



The following list of some of the most useful recent works on subjects 
connected with Latin Grammar is given for the assistance of those who 
wish to carry on their study in special directions. 

Allen, F. D. Remnants of Early Latin. Boston. Ginn & 
Heath. 1880. 

Brambach, W. Die Neugestaltung der lateinischen Orthogra- 
phic in ihrem Verh'altnis zur Schule. Leipzig. Teubner. 1868. 

Brambach, W. Hulfsbiichlein fur lateinische Rechtschreibung. 
Leipzig. Teubner. 1876. 

Brugmann, K. Grundriss der vergleichenden Gramniatik der 
indogermanischen Sprachen. Strassburg. K. J. Triibner. 1886. 

Buecheler, F. Grundriss der lateinischen Declination (new 
edition, by J. Windekilde). Bonn. E. Strauss. 1879. 

Christ, W. Metrik der Griechen und Romer. 2. Auflage. Leip- 
zig. Teubner. 1879. 

Corssen, W. Ueber Aussprache, Vocalismus und Betonung der 
lateinischen Sprache. 2. Auflage. Leipzig. Teubner. 1868-70. 

Curtius, G. Grundziige der griechischen Etymologic 5. Auf- 
lage. Leipzig. Teubner. 1879. 

Translated by A. S. Wilkins and E. B. England, and published by J. 
Murray, London. 

Delbrueck, B. Syntaktische Forschungen. Halle. Buekhand- 
lung des Waisenhauses. 1871-79. 

Draeger, A. Historische Syntax der lateinischen Sprache. 2. 
Auflage. Leipzig. Teubner. 1878-81. 

Engelhardt, M. Die lateinische Konjugation nach den Ergeb- 
nissen der Sprachvergleichung. Berlin. Weidmann. 1887. 

Greenough, J. B. Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive. Cam- 
bridge. J. Wilson & Son. 1870. 

Hale, W. G. The Sequence of Tenses in Latin (with supplemen- 
tary paper). Baltimore. I. Friedenwald. 1887-88. 

Hale, W. G. The CWz-Constructioiis, their History and Func- 
tions (in two parts). Ithaca. Cornell University. 1887-88. 

Huebner, E. Grundriss zu Vorlesungen liber die lateinischen 
Gramniatik. 2. Auflage. Berlin. Weidmann. 1880. 

Kuehner, R. Ausfuhrliche Grammatik der lateinischen Sprache. 
Hannover. Hahnsche Buchhandlung. 1877-78. 



NOTE. IX 

Luebbert, E. Die Syntax von Quom. Breslan. Hirt. 1870. 

Marx, A. Hiilfsbiichlein fiir die Aussprache der lateinischen Vo- 
kale in positionslangen Silben. Berlin. Weidmann. 1883. 

Mueller, C. F. W. Plautinische Prosodie (with a supplementary 
volume). Berlin. Weidmann. 1869-71. 

Mueller, L. De Re Metrica Poetarum Latinorum praeter Plau- 
tum et Terentium libri septem. Leipzig. Teubner. 1861. 

Neue, F. Formenlelire der lateinischen Sprache. 2. Auflage. 
Berlin. Calvary. 1875-77. 

Osthoff, H. (and Brugmanist, K.). Morphologische Unter- 
suchungen auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen Sprachen. Leip- 
zig. S. Hirzel. 1878-81. 

Roby, H. J. A Grammar of the Latin Language from Plautus to 
Suetonius. 5th edition. London and New York. Macmillan. 1887. 

Saussure, F. de. Memoire sur le systeme primitif des voyelles 
dans les langues indo-europe'ennes. Leipzig. Teubner. 1879. 

Schleicher, A. Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der 
indogermanischen Sprachen. 4. Auflage. Weimar. H. Boehlau. 
1876. 

Schmalz, J. H. Lateinische Syntax und Stilistik. (I wan Mid- 
ler's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft. II. B. d) and 
e) ). Nordlingen. Becksche Buchhandlung. 1885. 

Schmidt, J. H. H. Leitfaden in der Rhythmik und Metrik der 
classischen Sprachen fiir Schulen. Leipzig. Vogel. 1869. 

Translated by J. W. White, and published by Ginn & Co., Boston. 

Seelmann, E. Die Aussprache des Latein nach physiologisch- 
historischen Grundsatzen. Heilbronn. Henninger. 1884. 

Sievers, E. Grundziige der Phonetik zur Einfuhrung in das Stu- 
dium der Lautlehre der indogermanischen Sprachen. Leipzig. Breit- 
kopf und Hartel. 1881. 

Stolz, F. Lateinische Laut- und Formenlehre. (Iwan Miiller's 
Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft. II. B. a) b) c) ). 
Nordlingen. Becksche Buchhandlung. 1885. 

Vanicek, A. Etymologisches Worterbuch der lateinischen Spra- 
che. 2. Auflage. Leipzig. Teubner. 1881. 

Weil, H. De Fordre des mots dans les langues anciennes com- 
parers aux langues moderues. 3me e'dition. Paris. F. Vieweg. 
1879. 

Translated by C. W. Super, and published by Ginn & Co., Boston. 

Wordsworth, J. Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin. 
Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1874. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introductory 1 

Pronunciation .... 1-14 

Alphabet 1-5 

Sounds of the Letters . . 5-7 

Syllables 7-8 

Quantity 8-9 

Accent 9-10 

Enclitics and Proclitics . 10-11 

Rules of Quantity . . . 11-14 

Inflection 15-151 

Stems and Roots .... 15 

Phonetic Changes . . . 15-20 

Parts of Speech .... 21 

Nouns 22-55 

Gender, Number, and 

Case 22-25 

Declension .... 25-50 

First Declension . 28-29 

Second Declension . 29-33 

Third Declension . 33-47 

Case Forms . . 41-43 

Gender .... 43-45 

Fourth Declension . 47-49 

Fifth Declension . 49-50 

Irregular Nouns . . 51-55 

Adjectives 55-74 

First and Second De- 
clension . . . 56-59 
Third Declension . . 59-63 
Numerals .... 63-70 
Comparison .... 71-74 
Comparison of Ad- 
verbs .... 75-76 

Pronouns 76-87 

Personal 76-77 



PA.GB 

Demonstrative . . . 77-81 
Intensive .... 81-82 
Rel., Interrog., and 

Indef 82-85 

Possessive .... 85 

Correlatives, table of . 86 

Patrial Pronouns . . 87 

Verbs 87-151 

Voice, Mood . . . 88-89 
Tense, Number, and 

Person .... 90 

Noun and Adjective 

Forms .... 90-92 

Conjugation . . . 92-120 

Tense Stems . . . 92-94 

Personal Endings . 94-95 

Sum 95-97 

Possum .... 97-99 
The Four Conjuga- 
tions .... 99-117 
Remarks on Forms 117-119 
Periphrastic Con- 
jugations . . 119-120 
Stem Formation in 

3d Conj. . . . 120-124 
Lists of Verbs ac- 
cording to their 
Stem Formation 124-136 
Irregular Verbs . . 136-146 
Defective Verbs . 146-150 
Impersonal Verbs . 150-151 

WORD-FOKMATION . . . 151-184 

Simple and Derivative 

Words 152-175 

Compound Words . . . 175-184 





CONTENTS. 


XI 


Syntax 


184-383 


Substantive Clauses 




The Sentence . . . . 


184-186 


with ut, ne, quln, 




Rules of Agreement 


186-200 


quominus . . . 


288-298 


Subject and Verb . . 


186-189 


Relative Clauses (not 




Appositives and Pre- 




Purpose or Re- 




dicate Nouns . . 


189-193 


sult) .... 


298-301 


Adjectives . . . . 


193-195 


Clauses with dum, 




Relative Pronouns . . 


195-198 


donee, quoad 


302-304 


Constructio ad Sen- 




Clauses of Proviso . 


304-305 


sum 


198-200 


Clauses with ante- 




The Cases 


200-246 


quam andprius- 




Nominative . . . . 


200 


quam .... 


305-307 


Genitive 


201-211 


Clauses with post- 




Dative 


211-219 


quam, ubi, etc. . 


307-309 


Accusative . . . 


219-224 


Clauses with cum 




Vocative .... 


224-225 


(quom) . . . 


309-316 


Ablative .... 


225-239 


Indirect Discourse . 


316-329 


Place and Time . . 


239-243 


Ind. Dis. proper . 


316-324 


Cases with Preposi- 




Indirect Questions 324-326 


tions .... 


243-246 


Causal Clauses 




Peculiarities of Usage 


246-261 


with quod, 




Nouns 


246-248 


quia, etc. . . 


326-328 


Adjectives . . . 


248-250 


Implied Ind. Disc. 


328-329 


Pronouns .... 


250-261 


Subjunc. of At- 




Personal and Pos- 




traction . . 


329 


sessive . . . 


250-251 


Tenses of the Sub- 




Reflexive and Inten- 




junctive . . . 


330-332 


sive .... 


251-256 


Imperative Mood . . 


332-333 


Demonstrative 


256-257 


Infinitive ..... 


333-340 


Relative . . . 


257-258 


As Subject . . . 


334-335 


Indefinite . . . 


258-261 


Complementary . . 


335 


The Verb .... 


261-350 


As Object .... 


336-337 


Tenses ..... 


261-266 


With dicor, videor, 




The Subjunctive . 


267-332 


etc 


337 


Hortatory . . . 


267-268 


Other Uses . . . 


338 


Optative . . . 


268-269 


Omitted 


339 


Potential . . . 


269-271 


Tenses of Infinitive 339-340 


Dubitative . . . 


271-272 


Substantive Clauses . 


340-341 


Conditional Clauses 


272-277 


Participles .... 


342-345 


Concessive Clauses 


277-281 


Gerund and Gerundive 345-348 


Clauses of Compari- 




Supine 


348-349 


son .... 


281-283 


Different Constructions 




Clauses of Purpose 


283-285 


of Purpose . . . 


350 


Clauses of Result 


286-288 


Adverbs 


350-352 



Xll 



CONTEXTS. 



Prepositions .... 


352-359 


Figures of Versification . 


Connectives .... 


359-368 


The Different Metres 


Copulatives .... 


359-362 


Dactylic 


Disjunctives .... 


362-363 


Trochaic and Iamhic . 


Adversatives . . . 


364-365 


Anapaestic . . . . 


Atqul and tamen . . 


365 


Bacchiac and Cretic . 


Illatives 


366 


Choriamhic and Ionic . 


Words for " For " . . 


366 


Peculiarities of Early 


Quidem, sane, etc. . . 


367-368 


Verse 


Etiam and quoque . . 


368 


Saturnian Verse . . . 


Interrogative Particles 368-871 


Logaoedic Verse . . . 


Double Questions . . 


370-371 


Metres of Horace and 


Yes and No .... 


372 


Catullus .... 


Interjections .... 


372-373 


Appendix 


Arrangement of "Words 373-383 


Grammatical Figures . . 


The Period .... 


377-379 


Modes of Reckoning . . 


Anaphora and Chias- 




Time 


mus 


379-380 


Calendar .... 


Minor Points of Or- 




Money. Weights, and 


der 


380-383 


Measures . . . 


^EKSIFICATION .... 


383-411 


Roman Names .... 


Different Kinds of Verse 


381-385 


Abbreviations . . . . 


Thesis and Arsis . . 


385-386 


Principal Latin Writers . 


Caesura and Diaeresis 


386 


Ixdex 



386-388 
388-400 
388-391 
391-397 
397-398 
398-399 
399-400 

400-401 

402-403 

403 

404-411 
412-427 
412-415 
416-422 
416-419 
419 

420-422 
422-423 
423-424 
424-427 
429-453 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

1. Grammar is the study of the way in which thought 
is expressed by means of words combined in sentences. 

Latin grammar is the study of the way in which 
the Romans thus expressed thought. 

2. Grammar is naturally divided into five parts, ac- 
cording to the point of view from which words are treated, 
as follows : — 

i. Pronunciation, treating of the letters and the sounds 
of which words are composed. 

ii. Inflection, treating of the changes of form which 
words undergo to show how they are related to each other. 

iii. Word-formation, treating of the way in which 
words have grown and the elements of which they con- 
sist. 

iv. Syntax, treating of the way in which words are put 
together in sentences. 

v. Versification, treating of the way in which words 
are arranged, according to the length of their syllables, 
to form verse. 

PRONUNCIATION {Enuntiatio). 
A lph abet (Elementa) . 

3. The Latin alphabet consists properly of twenty- 
three letters : A (pronounced ah), B (bay*), C (kay), D 

* The slight vanish heard in the sound of English " ay " does not exist 
in Latin. '' Eh " more exactly represents the Latin sound, but "bay," 



Z PRONUNCIATION. 

(day), E (ay), F (ef), G (gay), H (hah), I (ee), K (kali), 
L (el), M (em), N (en), O (oh), P (pay), Q (koo), 
R (air), S (ess), T (tay), V (oo), X (ix), and two taken, 
during Cicero's life-time, from the Greeks, — Y (ii *) 
and Z (zeta, pronounced zayta). These two letters were 
used only in foreign, especially Greek, words. 

a. The Latin alphabet as it has come down to us in inscrip- 
tions consisted of capital letters only. There are, however, in- 
dications that the Romans had for every-day writing some sort 
of running hand, and traces of this seem to exist in the Latin 
manuscripts of the Middle Ages, from which are derived the 
letters now used for printing both English and Latin. 

b. The Romans used I and V as both vowels and consonants, 
calling them in the latter use I consonans and V consonans re- 
spectively. Modern usage confines V to the consonant use, and 
introduces U as the vowel. It has also been the custom for a 
century or more to use the form J for I consonans and to con- 
fine I to the vowel use, but the more common usage of the pre- 
sent day rejects J and uses I, as the Romans did, as both vowel 
and consonant. 

Note. It is not so inconsistent as it would at first sight seem thus to 
distinguish U and V, hut reject J. This form J is a wholly modern one, 
unknown to even the latest Romans, while a round form of V does occur in 
the early manuscripts, though no distinction of vowel and consonant is ob- 
served between it and the sharp form. Practically, also, the distinction of 
U and V is of much greater convenience to the learner than that of I 
and J. 

c. K disappeared from use very early except before a at the 
beginning of a few words, as Kaeso, Kalendae, Karthago, and 
its place was taken by C. Even the words mentioned were 
often spelled with C, except when abbreviated. 

d. C originally had the sound of our g, and the form G was 
not developed till later, when K had disappeared, and confu- 
sion arose from the use of C to represent two sounds. Then the 

"kay," etc., seem less likely to confuse the pupil than "beh," "keh," 
"gheh," etc. 
* I. e., German it or French u. 



ALPHABET. 3 

new form G took the old sound of C, and C kept the sound of K 
which it had acquired. In the abbreviation of certain names 
beginning with G, however, C was retained, as C. = Gains, CN. 
= Gnaens, etc. 

e. X is equivalent to cs or gs, and except in compounds is al- 
ways written for them. 

/. II and II are generally written (and spoken) as i and I re- 
spectively, even in compounds, as Vet (for Veil), consili (for 
consilil), conicid, abicio* etc. (from eon, ab, etc., and iacio). 
But II is frequent in the plural of common nouns and adjectives. 

4. The alphabet is divided into 

i. Vowels (litter ae vocciles}, which by themselves re- 
present full articulate sounds. 

ii. Consonants (litter ae consonantes), so called be- 
cause to make articulate sounds they have to be uttered 
with a vowel. 

5. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y.f 

6. When two vowels come together in one syllable the 
combination is called a diphthong (diphthongus). 

7. The diphthongs occurring in Latin are (common) 
ae, au, oe ; (rare) ei, eu, ui. 

a. ei occurs perhaps only in the interjection ei (hei) ; ui is 
almost as rare, being found in the pronouns cui and huic, and the 
interjection hid. In early Latin ai, oi, and ou also occur. 

8. Occasionally these vowels, instead of being united 
into a diphthong, have each its own syllable. The se- 
cond vowel is then generally marked with the so-called 
diaeresis, thus ( • • ) ; as, aeris, genitive singular of a£r 
(air), in distinction from aeris, genitive singular of aes 
(copper). 

* For the quantity of the first vowel in these compounds see 299, a. 

f The vowels are sometimes classified as open (a), medial (e and o), 
and close (i, u, and y). Furthermore, e, i, and y are sometimes spoken 
of as sharp or clear, a, o, and u as dull, with regard to the character 
of their sounds. A distinction is also found in some grammars between i, 
u, and y as soft vowels, and a, e, and o as hard vowels. 



4 PRONUNCIATION. 

9. The consonants are divided into — 

i. Semi-vowels (semivocales) : f, i consonans, 1, m, 
n, r, s, v. 

ii. Mutes (inutae) : b, c, d, g, k, p, q, t. 

iii. Double consonants (lltterae duplices) : x, z. 

a. h is properly not a letter at all, but only the sign of the 
rough breathing. 

Note. The mutes are so called, because they represent no articulate 
sound without a vowel ; the semi-vowels, because they stand between the 
mutes and the vowels in articulateness. It will be seen that the names 
of the semi-vowels begin with the vowel element, while the names of the 
mutes end with it. 

10. The semi-vowels are subdivided into — 

i. Liquids (liquidae, i. e., smooth sounds): 1, m, n, r, 
of which m and n are also called nasals (jicisales, i. e., 
nose sounds). 

ii. Spirants Qsplrantes, i. e., breathing sounds) : f, i, s, 
v, of which s is also called a sibilant (sibilans, i. e., 
hissing sound). 

a. The double consonant z is also a spirant and a sibilant. 

11. The mutes are subdivided into 

i. Smooth (tenues *) : c, k, q, p, t. 

ii. Middle (mediae) : g, b, d. 

[iii. Rough or aspirates (aspiratae) : oh, ph, th.]f 
a. The mutes ph and th and the breathing h are also spi- 
rants. Spirants are sometimes called fricatives. 

12. The consonants are also divided, according to the 
organ of speech chiefly used in uttering them, into 

i. Palatals J Qpalatales, i. e., palate letters) : c, k, 
q, g, 1, and n (before a palatal). 

* This word really means "fine" or "thin," and was applied to the 
mutes through a mistaken analogy. 

t The aspirates were not used until just before Cicero's time. They 
were at first sounded as the smooth mutes followed by the rough breathing, 
but soon became simple sounds (see 18, g). 

X Sometimes wrongly called gutturals (i. e., throat letters). 



SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 5 

ii. Dentals * (dentales, i. e., teeth letters) : t, d, s, r, 
1, and n (not before a palatal). 

iii. Labials (labiates, 1. e., lip letters) : p, b, f, v, m. 

a. X is a combination of a palatal, c or g, and a dental, s ; 
z is a combination of two dentals, d and s. 

13. The letters are further distinguished, according to 
their fullness of sound, as 

i. Sonants (sonaiites) : the vowels, and b, d, g, i, 1, m, 
n, r, v, z. 

ii. Surds Qsurdae) : c, f, k, p, q, s, t, x. 

14. The various classifications of consonants may be 
tabulated thus : — 

Palatals. Dentals. Labials. 

I Smooth (surd) C, k, q t p 

Mutes < Middle (sonant) g d. h 

( Aspirates (surd) ch g . (th ph 

Double X (surd) / \z (sonant) 

/ Sibilants J 
o • ( i (sonant) / Is (surd) f (surd), V (sonant) 

vowels 1 Li< * uids f 1 » r 

voweis ^ ( S0nant ) | Nasals : n n m 

Sounds of the Letters. 

15. The letters in Latin have each only one sound. 
The sounds of the vowels have each two grades, the long 
(producta) and the short (correpta~). 

16. The vowels are pronounced as follows : — 
a long as in father, a short as in Cuba ; 

e long as in they, e short like a in desperate ; f 
i long as in machine, i short as in cigar ; f 
o long as in note, o short as in obey • % 

* Sometimes called Unguals (i. e., tong-ue letters). 

f The sounds of short e and i are therefore nearly but not quite the 
same as in English get and pin. 

% The sound of O is particularly hard to illustrate in English, and the 
examples given are only approximately correct. The Latin long O is a 
pure sound, having no tendency towards the OO sound heard at the end of 
our long O ; those who have heard the word " coat " pronounced by care- 
less speakers in New England can get therefrom a clear idea of the Latin 
short O. 



b PEOXUNCIATION. 

u long like oo in food, U short like oo in hood j 
y long like the long sound of French u or German u, y 
short like the short sound of the same. 

17. The diphthongs have the sounds produced by run- 
ning together into one sound the vowels of which they are 
composed. Thus : — 

ae is sounded like ay = yes ; (ai nearly so) ; 

au is sounded like ow in how ; 

ei is sounded like ei in eight ; 

oe is sounded like oi in coin ; (oi nearly so) ; 

ui is sounded nearly like wee in sweet ; 

eu is sounded like eh-oo (i. e., nearly as in English 

feted, avoiding the tendency to make a short i of 

the e). 

a. The early diphthong ou, having a sound between o and u, 
soon passed everywhere into one or the other of these letters. 

b. During the early empire ae and oe became weakened so 
as to resemble long e in sound, and were thus often confused 
with it in spelling. 

18. The consonants are sounded as in English, but 
c and g are always hard, as in can and get. 

S is always sharp, as in sin. 

t is always pronounced as in tent. 

V has the sound of English w in ivant. 

i comonans has the sound of English y in year. 

a. When a consonant is doubled both letters are distinctly 
sounded ; as in Iup-pit&r, bel-lum, fer-ro. 

b. After g, q, or s, u if followed by a vowel unites closely 
with these letters, producing the sound heard in English san- 
guine, queen, suavity ; as in lingua, quarum, suddeo. 

But in the pronoun suus, sua, suum, M is a full vowel, ex- 
cept sometimes in verse. Sims thus has two syllables, su-us. 

c. n before c, g, k, q, X, has the sound heard in English 
anchor, anguish, anxious ; as in anceps, ungo, inquit, anxins. 

d. m and s after a vowel at the end of a word were sounded 
feebly ; as in bonwn, ple?ius. 



SYLLABLES. 7 

e. n before s also had a feeble sound, producing the effect of 
nasalizing and lengthening the preceding vowel ; as in consul, 
censor, amans. 

f, The Romans had a tendency to pronounce final d like t, 
and also b final or before s like p ; as in hand, ab, urbs. 

g. The aspirated sounds ch, ph., and th, when first intro- 
duced into Latin (about 100 b. a), had the sounds of kh, ph, 
and th in English inkhorn, upheave, hothouse. Afterwards 
ph came to be pronounced as in English phantom, and ch 
to have the sound of the German guttural ch, a somewhat 
rougher sound than English ch in character, while the sound 
of th approached that of simple t. 

h. e in est (is) was elided in prose as well as verse, when the 
word before it ended in a vowel or m, unless the est was em- 
phatic. Thus : magna est Diana Ephesiorum (pronounced ma- 
gna'st), hoc bellum gerendum est (pronounced gerendum'st).* 

Syllables (Syllabae). 

19. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has 
separate vowels (or diphthongs). Every syllable ends 
with a vowel, so far as is allowed by the following 
rules : — 

20. A single consonant between two vowels is joined to 
the second vowel. Thus : mi-les, so-nus. 

21. The double consonants x and z, and combinations 
of consonants which can begin a Latin (or English) word, 
also mn, are joined to the following vowel. Thus : re-xit, 
ga-za, 1-gno-sco, a-plau-stre, a-mnis. 

a. In Greek words the Greek usage is followed, by which 
more combinations of letters can begin a word than in Latin. We 

* As in all languages, many variations from these mechanical rules oc- 
curred in Latin as pronounced hy the Romans. With the extinction of the 
nation disappeared, of course, the exact pronunciation of their language. 
The caref id student, however, will observe, as he advances, numerous facts 
in the growth of Latin forms, which shed light upon the finer points of 
pronunciation. 



8 PRONUNCIATION. 

write, therefore, Te-cmessa, cy-cnus, etc. Even Pha-tnae is 
found, although tn cannot begin a Greek word. 

22. Other combinations of consonants are separated, 
the first letter being joined to the preceding vowel, all the 
others to the vowel which follows. Thus : ac-tus, pran-di- 
um, in-con-sul-to, vic-trtx, ex-cer-ptum, mon-stra. 

23. Compounds are separated into their parts. Thus : 
ab-eo, sic-ut. So also the apparent compounds like 
quis-piam. 

24. But compounds are treated like simple words in 
the two following instances : — 

a. If the first part has lost an ending. Thus : ma-gna-ni-mus 
(magnus-\- animus), lon-gae-vos (longus -\-aevom). 

b. If the second part would otherwise begin with a combina- 
tion of consonants impossible at the beginning of a word. Thus : 
pror-sus ( fro -J- versus). The first consonant in this case is 
almost always r. 

25. When the first part of a compound ended with the 
same letter with which the second part began, the first of 
these letters was dropped. Thus : tran-scribd (trans -\- 
scrlbo), di-spicid (dis + specio). 

Note 1. The last syllable of a word is called the ultimate, the last 
hut one the penultimate or penult, the last but two the antepenulti- 
mate Or ANTEPENULT. 

Note 2. A syllable preceded by a vowel is called pure (pura), as -US 
in deus ; by a consonant, impure (impura), as -Stat in constat. 

Note 8. An initial syllable ending- with a vowel, and any other syllable 
beginning' with a vowel, is called open ; other syllables are called CLOSE. 
Thus in deus both syllables are open, in obstat both are close. 

Quantity (Quantitas). 

26. By quantity is meant the relative time required 
to pronounce a letter or syllable. Quantity is either LONG 
(producta), short (correpta)^ or common (anceps). 

a. The time required to pronounce a short syllable is called a 
mora. A long syllable requires twice as much time, or two 
mwae. 



QUANTITY. — ACCENT. 9 

27. Syllables are long, short, or common BY nature 
(natura productae, correptae, ancipites) when their quan- 
tity is the same as that of the vowel (or diphthong) con- 
tained in them. Thus : eadem, consules. 

28. A syllable is long by position (positions pro- 
ducta) when it contains a short vowel followed by two or 
more consonants or by one of the double consonants. 
Thus : ftman^, abster^e^, ex£ra. 

29. But a syllable containing a short vowel followed 
by a mute with a liquid after it is common by position* 
unless the mute belongs to the first part of a compound. 
Thus in patris the first syllable is common, but in oblatum 
(ob -J- laturri) it is long. 

a. In real Latin words only 1 and r after a mute thus make a 
syllable common, but in Greek words m and n also do so. 
Thus the first syllable in Tecmessa is common. 

Note. The pupil should he cautioned that short vowels are always 
pronounced short, even when they occur in syllables which are long or 
common. 

Accent (Accentus). 

30. By accent is meant the way in which some one 
syllable of every word is uttered to make it more promi- 
nent than the other syllables. 

a. The Latin accent was of essentially the same nature as 
English accent ; that is, it consisted of a stress of voice upon 
the accented syllable, but was not so strongly marked as in 
English. On the other hand, the higher tone or pitch with 
which an accented syllable is uttered was more marked in Latin 
than in English, f 

* There are also a few cases of common vowels. The quantity of these 
was originally between long and short, and so in poetry they are sometimes 
used as long-, sometimes as short ; in prose they are pronounced short. 

t The Roman grammarians of the early empire tried to introduce an 
artificial system of accents based upon the Greek distinctions of acute, 



10 PRONUNCIATION. 

31. Words of one syllable are regarded as accented; 
as, me', sed,pdrs. 

But see 34-36. 

32. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first 
syllable ; as, pa f -ter, ve f -ni. 

33. Words of more than two syllables are accented 
upon the penult if that is long (either by nature or by 
position), otherwise upon the antepenult ; * as, i-ma'-go, 
a-mdn-tis, but do-mi-nus, te-ne-brae. 

a. In early Latin the accent could stand farther back than 
the antepenult. 

Enclitics and Proclitics. 

34. Some short words are so closely connected with 
the word before or after them that they have no accent of 
their own. 

35. Words thus closely attached to the word preceding 
them are called enclitics (enelitica), and are joined in 
writing with the preceding word. The syllable before an 
enclitic in all cases takes the accent. Thus : viri bonl cla- 
ri'que, good and famous men ; Graecdne an Romdna 
est mulier, is the woman Greek or Roman ? 

a. The commonest enclitics are the following particles and 
suffixes : que, and ; ve, or ; ne (interrog. particle) ; ce (demons, 
suffix) ; and the suffixes attached to pronouns to strengthen them 
(see 179, b and c, and 186, a) : met, pe (ppe), pse, pte, te. 

b. Inde is enclitic hi delude, proinde, subinde, etc., thus throw- 
ing the accent upon the first syllable. 

36. Proclitics (procliticd) are pronounced as part of 
the following word, without affecting the accent. The 
chief proclitics are the negatives and the prepositions of 

grave, and circumflex accents, but the treatment of this system does not 
belong in a school grammar. See Midler's Handbuch der klassischen Alter- 
tumswissenschaft ; B. : " Lateinische Grammatik," pp. 192 £f. 

* For one or two classes of exceptions, see Gen. and Voc. of nouns in 
-ius and -ium, 97, 5, a ; certain compounds of facio, 298, 6. 



RULES OF QUANTITY. 11 

one syllable. Thus: non omnis moriar, I shall not all 
die ; ad urbem eamus, let us go to town. 

a. Proclitics receive an accent if emphatic ; so also the prepo- 
sitions when separated from their nouns ; as, in Gallorum fines 
jprofectus est, he set forth into the country of the Gauls. 

Note. The accent of a compound word of more than two syllables 
often helps fix the quantity of a penultimate vowel in the simple word of 
two syllables. Thus, the accent of insanus, conscrl'bo, intellegit, fixes the 
quantity of the penult of sunus, scribo, lego, in the mind, because accent, 
which belongs also to English words, is easier to remember than quantity. 

Rules of Quantity. 

37. Every vowel is pronounced long or short, accord- 
iug to its own quantity, without regard to the kind of 
syllable in which it stands. The few common vowels are 
pronounced short in prose. 

Note 1. Long vowels are marked thus (~) in this grammar, com- 
mon vowels thus (•*) ; short vowels are left unmarked, except when the 
mark (~) is useful to contrast them sharply with a long vowel. 

Note 2. Vowels followed by two or more consonants (hidden quanti- 
ties) are treated as short, when their quantity has not been ascertained, 
at least with probability. 

38. A vowel before another vowel or before a diph- 
thong is short ; as, e in mens ; i in patriae,. 

a. The breathing h has no effect as regards quantity. Thus, 
e in velio is short. 

b. Exceptions : — 

1. i is long in dins (for divos). 

2. The first vowel is common in Diana, Eheu, ohe. 
For other exceptions see 146, and 246. 

c. Greek words regularly retain their original quantity ; as, 
Aeneas, IxTon, heroes. 

d. But a few words which have ei in Greek have e in Latin. 
These are chorea, Malea, gijnaeceum. So some have l in Latin ; 
as, academia. Balineum and probably platea seem to have 
been always used with the penultimate vowel short. These vari- 
ations were due to dialectic forms in Greek. 



12 PRONUNCIATION. 

Note. The Greek letters are in most eases represented by the corre- 
sponding Latin letters ; but v is represented by y, k by C, and <p 1 x? an< * &> 
by ph, ch, th, respectively, and the diphthongs are reproduced thus : — 
ai by ae, 

■j ( I usually, e rarely, before a consonant, 



e I " before a vowel, 

oi by oe, av by an, eu by eu, ov by u. 

39. All diphtliongs are long ; as, durum, poende. 

a. But ae in prae when compounded with words beginning 
with a vowel is short ; as, praeaciitus. 

This diphthong is sometimes long in Statius. 

40. All vowels produced by contraction (see 61) are 
long, whether consonants had originally stood between 
them or not ; as, alius (for aliius), cogo (for coago), iu- 
nior (for iuvenior) . 

41. All vowels before i consonans, nf, ns, gm, and gn, 
are long ; as, Maia, Pompeius, eius, cuius, amans, Infero, 
agmen, regnum. 

a. Exceptions are biiugus, quadriiugus, Greek words in 
-egma, and some others. 

42. All vowels before nt and nd are short ; as, amantis, 
portendo. 

a. But in nundinae, nondum, prendo, the vowel is long by 
contraction. 

b. Further exceptions are undecim, quindecim, vendo, vin- 
demia, and some Greek proper names like JEpamino?idas. 

For vowels before sc in inceptive verbs, see 237, a. 

43. I is always long before v, except in nivis and the 
other case-forms of nix, snow. 

44. The quantity of a vowel remains the same in all 
forms of a given word and its derivatives, unless some 
special cause comes in to change it. 

a. Instances are — 

1. Nominatives in -ns from oblique cases with short vowels ; 
as, amansj but amantis; mens, but menti ; docens, but docentem. 



SPECIAL RULES OF QUANTITY. 13 

2. Cases where the long vowel of a simple word is shortened 
in a derivative because the accent has left it ; as, a'cer, acerbus. 

Special Rules. 

Final Syllables and Monosyllables. 
I. Vowels. 

45. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long ; as, de, 
me, qui. 

a. Exceptions are the enclitic particles ne, que, ve, ce, pe 
(ppe), p>se, pte, which are short. 

46. Final a, e, y are generally short; final i, o, u are 
almost always long.* 

a. Exceptions : — 

(1.) Final a is long in the ablative case (see 91), and usually 
in verbs and particles, but short in eia, ita, quia, and puta ( = 
suppose). 

(2.) Final e is long in the fifth declension (see 132) and in 
the imperative of the second conjugation (see 222) ; also in 
most adverbs, but short in bene, male, saepe, inferne, superne, 
and words like facile, temere (really neut. adj.). 

(3.) Final i is common in mihi, tibt, sibt, ibi, ubi. 

(4.) Final o is short in immo, cito, llico, duo, and generally in 
ego, homo. It is common in modo, but short in its compounds. 

A few other exceptions will be found in their appropriate places later. 
(Cf. 62, c, 94, 115, 124, 158.) 

n. Consonants. 

47. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable ending in a 
consonant are long ; as, sol, par. 

a. But cor, f el, mel, os (ossis), vir, and probably vas (vadis) 
are short ; also those in -al and -il, except sal. 

48. Other words of one syllable and all final syllables 
are short if they end in any consonant except c or s. 

* The enclitic particles given in 45, a, may be regarded as falling under 
this rule, since they are never used alone. 



14 PEON UNCI ATION. 

a. The following, however, are long : en, non, quln, sin, cur, 
lien, Hiber, and Greek nouns like aer, aether, etc. 

For other exceptions see 93, d, 94, 97, 7, 93, a, 124, and 125. 

49. Monosyllables and final syllables in -c are long. 

a. But nee, fae, donee are short always, the pronouns Mc 
and (if nominative or accusative) hoc sometimes. 

50. Monosyllables and final syllables in -as, -es, -os are 
long, those in -is, -us, -ys are short. 

a. Exceptions : — 

(1.) as is short in anas, duck. 

(2.) es is short in the singular of nouns in -es (genitive -itis, 
-etis, or -idis) (see 102), and in the plural of Greek nouns of 
the third declension (see 124). 

(3.) os is short in compos, impos, and the compounds of os 
(pssis) ; also in the singular of the second declension (see 95). 

(4.) is and Tis are long in the plural of nouns, adjectives, 
and pronouns (see 91, 95, 108, 143, 155, 4, 178, 180). 

(5.) is is also long in the present of the fourth conjugation 
(see 222), and in the verb forms fls, Is, sis, vis, veils, and 
their confounds. 

(6.) US is also long in the genitive singular of the fourth de- 
clension (see 126), and in the nominative singular of nouns 
whose genitive ends in -litis, -udis, or -uris. 

For other exceptions see 94, 98, 101, 124, 125, 215, and 429. 

51. Perfects and supines of two syllables (see 233 ff.) 
have the penultimate vowel long if only a single consonant 
follows it; as, veiu,fugi, votum. 

a. Except bibl, dedi, fidi, scidi, stetl, stiti, tuli ; and citum, 
datum, itum, litum, quitum, ratum, rutum, satum, situm, sta- 
tum. 

52. The antepenultimate vowel is short in verbs in -id 
of the third conjugation (see 230, f) ; as, capio, facio, 
fodio, cupio. 

53. Compound words usually retain the quantity of 
their parts even when vowels are changed in composition. 



INFLECTION. — STEMS AND BOOTS. 15 

INFLECTION (Flexio). 

Introductory. 

Stems and Roots. 

54. Words consist of two parts, the stem and the 

ENDING. 

55, (1.) The stem belongs to all the forms of the word 
and expresses the meaning in a general way only. 

(2.) The ending indicates the grammatical relations of 
the word (gender, case, person, etc.), and thns shows how 
the meaning is applied in particular instances. 

Thus, the word vox (voice) consists of a stem voc- and 
an ending -s ; the ending is changed to express different 
applications of the idea " voice ; " as, vocwm, of voices, 
voce, with a voice. 

5Q. Stems themselves consist of two parts, a simple 
form called the root and an addition called a suffix. 

57. The root is the part which belongs to all the 
words of any one group, and expresses the meaning in a 
still more general way than the stem. 

Thus, the verb ago, the adjective agilis, and the noun 
agitcitio have the common root ag-. 

Note. Roots are often indicated thus : <v/ag\ 

a. Some roots are used as stems without taking any suffix, 
and some nouns add no ending to the stem in the nominative 
case.* 

Phonetic Changes. 

Note. In the formation and growth of words various changes of letters 
take place as the parts of the word are put together. These changes are 

* These are survivals from the earlier periods of language. At first 
there were only roots, the suffixes and other endings being themselves 
independent roots. Then two roots (later more) were united together 
and presently coalesced into a single form (stem period). Finally the 
inflectional endings became differentiated from other suffixes, and thus 
words, as we know them, were developed. All word-formation is thus 
in reality composition. 



16 



INFLECTION. 



the result of an effort to make a combination of sounds (1) easy to pro- 
nounce or (2) more agreeable to the ear than the original combination. 
In the first case the change is called Phonetic Decay; in the second, 
Euphonic Change. 

Vowel Changes. 

58. The Latin vowels are produced chiefly with the 
lips and palate, as follows : — 

a is produced by keeping both lips and palate wide open. 
o is produced by contracting the lips somewhat. 
U is produced by contracting the lips as much as possible. 
e is produced by contracting the palate somewhat. 
i is produced by contracting the palate as much as possible. 
y is produced by contracting both lips and palate as much as 
possible. 

59. Vowels, especially when short, tend to flatten from 
a through o to u or to weaken from a through e to i. 
Sometimes also they change from o or u across to e or i, 
as in the following figure : — 




Thus: — 



salto but exsulto. 
servos and servus. 
factus but infectus. 



capio Met incipio. 
nomen but nominis. 
voster and vester. 



a. Certain consonants have a special effect upon the vowel 
before them. Thus, a vowel before 1 tends to become u, before 
r to become e. Cf . epistula for epistola, verto for vorto, peiero 
for periuro. 

b. On the other hand, u was avoided after v until about the 
end of the classical period. Therefore we find forms like 
servos, volgus, volt, in the time of Cicero and Caesar, though a 
similar o after other consonants had changed to U, as in ficus, 
multum, vehunt. 



INTRODUCTORY. — VOWEL CHANGES. 17 

c. So after u this o was retained longer than elsewhere, or 
else cu was written for quo. Thus, while in Plautus and 
Terence we have equos and quom beside multum, we find later 
ecus beside equus, and cum always, never quum. On the other 
hand, suits, tuus, etc., are the classical forms. 

d. u in words like lubet, aestumo, and in superlatives (espe- 
cially after t and s) was retained till Cicero's time, instead of 
becoming i as in other similar cases. Thus : maxumus, optumus, 
beside pulcherrimus. 

60. The diphthongs are sometimes weakened to single 
long vowels, especially in composition. Then ae becomes 
I, oe becomes u, au becomes 6 or u. Thus : — 

quaero but conquiro. plaudo but explodo. 

moenia but munio. claudo but includo. 

61. Two vowels coming together are often contracted 
into one long vowel. The first vowel then usually pre- 
vails, but o prevails over the weaker vowels u, e, i, whether 
before or after them. Thus we have — 

malo for ma(v)olo. debeo from de-habeo. 

amasti for ama(v)istl. nolo for ne(v)olo. 

amarunt for ama(v)erunt. iunior for iu(v)enior. 

• norunt for no(v)erunt. fructus for fructuis. 

cogo from co(m)-ago. bigae for bi-(i)ngae. 

sirim for si(v)erim. 

62. Vowels originally long had in many cases been 
shortened in classical times, especially vowels in final 
syllables (cf . 46-50). 

a. Thus, final a in the nominative of the first declension was 
originally long. 

b. Also many final syllables in -1, -r, -t, -m. Cf. calcar, 
honor, amat, amem, beside calcaris, honoris, amatis, amemus, 
etc. 

c. Nouns and verbs in -o remained long generally through the 
classical period, but gradually shortened in the time of the em- 
pire. So sermo, later sermo ; amo, later amo, etc. 



18 INFLECTION. 

63. The weaker vowels (e and i) were often dropped ; 
the stronger vowels (a, o, u) occasionally. 

i. In the middle of a word (syncope) : — 

dextra from dextera. nauta from navita. 

vinclum from vinculum. 

ii. At the end of a word (apocope) : — 

ut from uti. neu from neve. 

64. Between consonants hard to pronounce together a 
parasitic vowel (e or u) was sometimes developed, espe- 
cially in foreign names. Thus : — 

ager from stem agro-. Alcumena for Alcmena. 

Consonant Changes. 
The commonest consonant changes are as follows : — 
(55. A consonant before 1, r, or s is often assimilated. 
Thus : — 

puella for puer(u)la. parriclda for patricida. 

press! for premsT. 

66. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. 
Thus : — 

i. b before s or t becomes p ; as : — 

scrips! for scrlbs!. scnptum for scribtum. 

ii. g before t becomes c ; as : — 

actus for agtus. 
For exceptions see 101, a, and 690, 1. 

iii. c before a liquid becomes g ; as : — 

segmentum for secmentum. 
p and t sometimes thus become b and d. 
iv. d, and sometimes t before t, become s ; as : — 

claustrum for claudtrum. 

v. m before a palatal or dental becomes n ; as : — 

tunc for tumc(e). eundem for eumdem. 



INTRODUCTORY. — CONSONANT CHANGES. 19 

In loose compounds m remains ; cf. numquam, etc. 
vi. A labial mute before n becomes m ; as : — 

somnum/or sopnum. 
So n before a labial mute or m becomes m ; as : — 

imbellis for inbellis. 
vii. c and g unite with a following s to make x ; as : — 

dux for dues. rex/orregs. 

67. s between two vowels or before morn becomes r ; 
as : — 

eram for esam. cf . generis from genus, 

veternus for vetusnus (cf. 59, a). 
(58. v before a consonant becomes u, and then if pre- 
ceded by a forms the diphthong au. Thus : — 

solutus for solvtus. cautus for cavtus. 

Cf. 63, i. 

69. Consonants are sometimes dropped (elision), 
i. Rarely at the beginning of a word, as : — 

nosco for gnosco. latum for tlatum. 

natus for gnatus. lis for stlis. 

ii. In the middle of a word, the preceding vowel being 
then generally lengthened. Thus : — 

(1.) c and g between a liquid and a following s or t; 
as: — 

sparsi for spargsi, cf spargo. 
or before morn; as : — 

iumentum for iugmentum, cf iugo. 
luna for lucna, cf luceo. 

(2.) d and t before s and sometimes before other let- 
ters, as : — 

pes for peds, cf gen. pedis. ramus for radmus, cf radix, 
clausi/or claudsi, cf. claudo. suavis/or suadvis, cf suadeo. 
For exceptions see 66, iv. 
(3.) n before s, unless t has already fallen out, as : — - 



20 INFLECTION. 

sanguis for sanguiiis. vicesimus for vicensimus. 

formosus for formonsus. 
hut mons for monts, cf. gen. montis. 

amans for amants, cf gen. amantis, etc. 

a. In Greek words, nt fall out as in the original ; as, elephas, 
elephantis. 

(4.) i consonans before a vowel i (cf . 3,/") : as : — 

plebei for plebeii. tbicio for abiicio, etc. 

(5.) r occasionally and s often ; as : — 

peiero for periuro. iudex for iusdex. 

tredecim for tresdecim. 
(6.) v often, and then if two vowels came together con- 
traction takes place ; as : — 

iutus for iuvtus. motus for movtus. aetas for aevitas. 
iii. At the end of a word, whenever two consonants 
come together, the second, unless it be s, is dropped and 
the preceding vowel not lengthened. Thus : — 

mel, cf. gen. mellis. cor, cf. gen. cordis. 

In os (ossis), s is dropped, as ss cannot end a word. 

70. A parasitic p is developed between m and a fol- 
lowing s or t ; as : — 

hiemps for hieins. sumps! for sumsi. sumptum for sumtum. 

71. Kindred consonants are sometimes interchanged. 
Thus : — 

c and g, as trecenl, triginta. 

d and t, as set, haut, beside sed, hand. 

t and s in many suffixes, as to, so, turd, surd (cf. 
255, 1, and 274). 

r and 1 in the suffixes rci, Id ; ris, lis, etc. (cf . 258, and 
260). 

72. The liquids 1 and r sometimes change places with 
the root vowel accompanying them (metathesis'). Thus : — 

cerno and ere turn. sterno and stratum. 

Other consonants very rarely do the same. 



parts of speech. 21 

Parts of Speech. 

73. There are eight classes of words in Latin, called 
parts OF speech. They are Nouns, Adjectives, Pro- 
nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and 
Interjections. The last four are sometimes called parti- 
cles. 

74. (1.) A noun — also called substantive — Qno- 
meii) is the name of something ; as, Caesar ; Roma, 
Kome ; avis, bird ; virtus, virtue. 

(2.) An adjective (adiecUvuni) is a word used with a 
noun to express a quality of it or to describe it in some 
way ; as, bonus, good ; magnus, great ; tantus, so great. 

(3.) A pronoun (pronomen) is a word used to supply 
the place of a noun ; as, tu, thou ; ille, he or that ; qui, 
who. 

(4.) A verb (verbum^) is a word by which something 
is affirmed or stated ; as, regit, he rules ; eram, I was. 

(5.) An adverb (adverbium) is a word used to limit 
or describe the meaning of a verb, adjective, or another 
adverb ; as, bene, well ; saepe, often. 

Note. Observe that a descriptive adverb has the same relation to its 
verb which a descriptive adjective has to its noun. Thus, in the expres- 
sion "he acted nobly," the adverb "nobly" limits "acted" in just the 
same way in which "noble" limits " act " in the expression "a noble 
act." 

(6.) A preposition Qpraepositio) is a word which ex- 
presses the relation between a noun or pronoun and some 
other word ; as, cum,, with ; sub, under. 

(7.) A conjunction (coniunctio) is a word used to 
connect other words or combinations of words ; as, et, and ; 
nam, for. 

(8.) An interjection (interiectio) is a word used to 
make an exclamation expressing some emotion ; as, ecce, 
lo ! euge, well done ! 



22 INFLECTION. 

Note. The inflection of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns is called de- 
clension (declindtio), that of verbs, conjugation (coniugatio). Some 
adjectives and the adverbs derived from, them also undergo comparison 
(comparand) to show the degree of their application. The other parts of 
speech are not inflected. 

NOUNS. 

75. Nouns (nomina) are divided into — 

i. Abstract (nomina abstrdctd), or names of qualities, 
actions, or notions ; as, honitas, goodness ; otium, rest ; 
festlnatio, haste. 

ii. Concrete (nomina concreta), or names of individual 
objects. 

76. Concrete nouns are divided into — 

i. Proper nouns (nomina propria), or names of per- 
sons, places, etc. ; as, Caesar; Roma, Rome. 

ii. Common or appellative nouns (nomina appellee- 
t~iva), or names of classes of objects ; as, homo, man ; 
avis, bird ; mendacium, lie. 

iii. Collective nouns (nomina collectlva), or names 
of groups of objects ; as, exercitus, army ; populus, the 
people. 

iv. Material nouns (nomina materidlia), or names of 
materials; as, lignum, wood; cibus, food. 

77. Nouns have gender, number, and case. 

Gender (Genus). 

78. The gender of a noun is its distinction in regard 
to sex. There are three genders in Latin, masculine 
(mCfscunnuni), feminine (femiriimun), and neuter 
(jneutrurri). 

79. Gender is of two kinds : natural, corresponding 
to the real sex of the object, and grammatical, attached 
to particular word-endings without any regard to sex. 
The natural gender has the precedence of grammatical 
gender in nouns denoting male or female beings. 



NOUNS. — GENDER. NUMBER. 23 

80. Masculine are the following classes of nouns : — 
i. Names of male beings and of nations. 

ii. Names of rivers, winds, and months. 

Note. The words for river {fluvius and amnis), for wind (ventus), and 
for month (mensis) are masculine, and the individual names were probably 
at first adjectives agreeing with these. 

81. Feminine are the following classes of nouns : — 
i. Names of female beings. 

ii. Names of countries, towns, islands, trees, plants, and 
usually gems. 

82. Neuter are the following classes of nouns : — 
i. Names of the letters and indeclinable nouns. 

ii. Words used merely as such without grammatical 
relations ; as, pater est disyllabum, [the word] father is a 
word of two syllables. 

iii. Other parts of speech, phrases, and clauses used as 
nouns. 

83. Some words are either masculine or feminine, and 
such are said to be of common gender {genus commune) ; 
as, hostis, enemy ; bos, ox or cow. 

Note. When such nouns denote things their gender is sometimes 
called doubtful (anceps), but this term is becoming obsolete. 

84. Some names of animals include both sexes, but 
have only one gender ; as, passer, m., sparrow ; volpes, f ., 
fox. They are called epicene nouns (epicoena or pro- 
miscua). They generally have the gender of their termi- 
nations. 

a. When it is necessary to distinguish the sex in these nouns, 
the word mas or femina is put in apposition with them ; as, 
volpes mas, a male fox. 

Number (Numerics). 

85. The number of a noun shows whether one thing 
is meant by it or more than one. 



24 INFLECTION. 

86. There are two numbers in Latin, the singular 
(singulciris), denoting one object, and the plural {plu- 
ralis), denoting more than one. 

a. There are two instances of a lost dual number (dualis), 
denoting two objects ; namely, ambo, both, and duo, two. 

Case (Casus). 

87. The case of a noun shows its relation to other 
words. 

88. There are six cases in Latin : — 

(1.) The nominative (nominatwus), which denotes 
the noun as a word, and especially indicates the relation 
of the subject to a finite verb. 

(2.) The genitive (genetlvus), which expresses rela- 
tions of possession, origin, and such others as are mostly 
expressed by the preposition of in English. 

(3.) The dative (datwus), which expresses that to 
ovfor which anything is or is done. 

(4.) The accusative (acciisativus*), which denotes the 
relation of an object to a transitive verb or preposition. 

(5.) The vocative (vocafivus), which is used to ad- 
dress a person or thing. 

(6.) The ablative (ablatwus), which expresses va- 
rious adverbial relations, such as are expressed in English 
mostly by the prepositions by, from, with. 

a. There are remnants of a seventh case called the locative 
(locativus), which was once used to denote the place where a 
thing was or was done, but afterwards coalesced in most of its 
forms with the ablative. (See 93, 97, 3, and 112.) 

b. Indications of a special case-form to denote the means or 
instrument of an action (instrumental case) also occur, but 
this case became early absorbed in the ablative. 

c. The nominative and vocative are sometimes called direct 
cases (casus recti), i. e., un inflected cases ; the others oblique 
cases (casus obliqul), L e., inflected cases. 



NOUNS. — THE DECLENSIONS. 25 

d. The vocative is properly not a case at all, and, except in 
some Greek nouns and in the singular of masculine (and femi- 
nine) nouns of the second declension ending in -OS or -US (see 
95 j, has always the same form as the nominative. 

Declension (Decllndtid). 

89. There are five declensions in Latin, distinguished 
by the last letter of the stems which they include, or (in 
dictionaries) by the endings of the genitive singular. 
Thus : — • 



eclension 


Stem-vowel Ending of Genitive Singular 


I. 


a -ae 


II. 


o -i 


III. 


i or a consonant -is 


IV. 


u -us 


V. 


e -ei 



a. The final letter of the stem is called the characteristic, and 
appears most clearly in the genitive plural, as follows : — 

Declension Ending of Gen. Plural 

I. -arum 

II. -5rum 

III. -ium or -urn 

IV. -uum 
V. -erum 

90. The regular endings of the different cases, com- 
bined according to the laws of euphonic change, with the 
characteristics of the five declensions, are given on p. 26. 

oi. It will be noticed that when the same ending occurs in 
both singular and plural, it usually has a short vowel in the sin- 
gular and a long one in the plural. 

b. It will be seen further that — 

(1.) The nominative singular of masculines and feminines 
generally ends in -s. 

(2.) The accusative singular of masculines and feminines 
always ends in -m. 



26 



INFLECTION. 























00 




> 


,© 




oo 

10) 


!© © 


"P ? © 

- — ' i 


© s 


i© 


09 

1© 

1 


1© 
1 


d 
i© 


09 

■ © 






fc 


'? 




id id 












eS 

d 


> 


d 






09 




|g 


id 




a 

d 


d s 




1— 1 




fc 






?s S? 


■— < M 






d 


'•£ 








=y 


to 








09 






09 








53 








id 






id 






S 
























fc 


ss 

— i -u 




JS 






.2 






C3 




" i 




to 

c 

'11 

03 2 

1 a 




'7 ? 


i 


•?5 


09 

1© 


a 

d 


00 


'?? 


rH 






o 


.2 


, H 


c 








d 




1— 1 
1— 1 


+2 

c 

C 

o 

&o 
C 


fc 

N 


all 

o 

~ 2 


' i 




© 


? 


eS 

i 


1 


i 


03 




o 
O 


3 

a 


.-S3 

M 

09 3 




a 
© 






09 
1© 






09 

1© 




O 


& 

b 


aa 

O 13 
i i 

09 
1 1 


'? 


,o a a 


a 

o fl 


■? 


c3 
i 




d 
ja 

lO 

GO 

"7 1 


C3 

1 








O © 






~- © 




"f 






09 

■O 














































'kT 




HH 


,c ? 




c3 

i 


© 

■ 


i « 
" i 


ss 

•-i a 


id 


8 

i 


i 


d 
| 

"7 


2 
ie3 






















rO 




















> 




<1 






£ 














•8 




<8 






-2 








6" 




rC 








e 




CO 




fc 


d 


Q <tj 


> 


^ 


fc 


6 


Q 


^ 












Singular. 








Plural. 





NOUNS. — THE DECLENSIONS. 27 

(3.) The vocative is always like the nominative except in the 
singular of second declension nouns in -OS and -us. 

(4.) The dative and ablative plural are always alike. 

(5.) The genitive plural always ends in -rim, except occasion- 
ally in second declension nouns in -os and -om. 

(6.) The accusative plural of masculines and feminines al- 
ways ends in -s. 

(7.) In neuters the accusative as well as the vocative is like 
the nominative, and in the plural these cases always end in -a. 

(8.) The final vowels i, o, u are always long (cf. 46) ; a is 
short except in the ablative singular of the first declension ; © is 
short except in the fifth declension. 

Note. These (apparent) endings grew from the combination of a nearly 
or quite uniform set of case-endings with the different kinds of stems. The 
original endings were of course common to the different members of the 
Indo-European parent language. The earliest forms which they show in 

Plural. 
N. M. & F. N. 

— -s -a 
-sum 
-bus 

— -s -a 
-bus 
-is 

Most of the development from these endings to the common endings met 
in literature is easy to trace by the rules of euphonic change given above 
(58-72). A few points, however, need further mention. The -s had 
dropped from the nominative of the first declension, and the -d of the ab- 
lative had almost disappeared, when literature began. This -d belonged 
only to a-, O-, and i- stems. The ablative of consonant and U- stems came 
from the old instrumental case in e ; that of e- stems was formed later to 
correspond to a- stems. In the first declension the ending of the geni- 
tive singular gave way to a new one, -ai, later -ae, which is very probably 
the locative ending transferred to the genitive case. A like transposition 
of the locative ending took place in the dative and ablative plural of the 
first and second declensions, -em in the accusative singular of consonant 
stems is probably the Latin representative of an earlier vowel-m. Cf. 
Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, edited by Iwan Miiller, 
vol. ii., Part I., B. : " Lateinische Formenlehre," by J. Stolz, pp. 153, 
213 et alias. 



Latin 


are as follows : — 










Singular. 




M, 


, &F. 






Nom. and Voc. 


-s 






Gen. 




-OS 




Dat. 




-i 




Ace. 


-m 






Abl. 




-d 




[Loc] 




-i 



28 INFLECTION. 

FIRST DECLENSION. 

91. The first declension consists of the nouns whose 
stems end in -a. The nominative is the same as the stem 
with the vowel shortened. They are thus declined : — 

musa, a muse. 

Stem musa- 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. musa, a muse. musae, muses. 

Gen. musae, of a muse. musarum, of muses. 

Dat. musae, to a muse. musis, to muses. 

Ace. musam, a muse. musas, muses. 

Voc. musa, thou muse. musae, ye muses. 

Abl. musa, from, by, with a musis, from, by, with 
muse. muses. 

GENDER. 

92. Nouns of the first declension are regularly femi- 
nine. 

a. Nouns which denote male beings are masculine ; as, scriba, 

clerk ; poeta, poet. So Hadria, the Adriatic Sea (properly, 

the god of that sea). So also various names of rivers (cf. 

80, ii.). 

CASE-FORMS. 

93. The locative of the first declension ends in -ae in 
the singular and in -is (like the ablative) in the plural ; 
as, Romae, at Rome ; Athenls, at Athens. 

a. An old form of the genitive singular in -at occurs in the 
poets ; as, aulai. The same ending is found in the dative, but 
only as a diphthong. 

b. Like the stem vowel the nominative ending in the first de- 
clension was originally long, and the nominative is sometimes 
found with the final a long in early poetry ; as, puella. 

c. The old genitive singular in -as is used in the word fa- 
milia, when combined with pater, mater, filiics, or fllia. 
Thus : pater familias, a householder. 



FIRST DECLENSION. — GREEK NOUNS. 



29 



d. The old genitive plural in -urn instead of -arum is re- 
tained in compounds of cola and gena, in many names of na- 
tions, and in the words amphora, a liquid measure, and 
drachma, a Greek coin. 

e. A dative and ablative plural in -abus is sometimes found. 
This form is usual only in dea, goddess, and filia, daughter, to 
distinguish them from the same cases of deus, god, and films, 
son. 

/. In words like Baiae, the i of the stem is dropped before 
the ending of the dative and ablative plural ; as, Bats for 
Bails. (Cf. 3, /, and 69, ii., 4.) 

For other rare old case forms, cf. Biicheler, Grundriss der lot. Decli- 
nation. 

GREEK NOUNS. 

Note. Nouns taken from the Greek were latinized to a greater or a less 
degree according to the time when they came into the language. The 
nouns borrowed early show more Latin forms, while those which came in 
at the height of the classical period retain more of their Greek aspect. 
Often a Latin form is the more common in prose, while the Greek form is 
preferred by the poets. 

94. Greek nouns in the first declension end in -a or -e 
feminine, in -as or -es masculine. The Greek forms oc- 
cur only in the singular ; and in nouns in -a they are 
chiefly confined to the accusative case. 

The declension of the singular is as shown below. 
The plural is like that of pure Latin nouns. 

Nom. Ossa 
Gen. Ossae 
Dat. Ossae 
Ace. Ossam (-an 

or -an) * 
Voc. Ossa 
Abl. Ossa 



epitome tiaras 

epitomes (-ae) tiarae 

epitomae (-e) tiarae 

epitomen tiaram 
(-am) (-an) 

epitome tiara (-a) 

epitome (-a) tiara 



cometes 


Anchise3 


eometae 


Anehisae 


eometae 


Anchisae 


cometen 


Anchisen 


(-am) 


(-am) 


cometa 


Anehisa(-e) 



cometa (-e) Anchise (-a) 



SECOND DECLENSION. 
95. The second declension consists of the nouns whose 
stems end in -o. The nominative ending is -us (-os) 

* The forms in parentheses are the less common ones. 



30 



INFLECTION. 



masculine and a few feminine, -er or -ir * masculine, 
urn- (-om) neuter. The declension is as follows : — 

dominus, master. regnum, kingdom, 

servos (later servus), slave. 

domino- 



Stem 



servo- 



regno- 



Singular. 



Nom. 


dominus 


servos (servus) 


regnum 


Gen. 


domini 


servi 


regni 


D. & A. 


domin5 


servo 


regno 


Ace. 


dominum 


servom (servum) 


regnum 


Voc. 


domine 


serve 
Plural. 


regnum 


N.&V. 


domini 


servi 


regna 


Gen. 


dominorum 


servorum 


regnorum 


D. &A. 


dominis 


servis 


regnis 


Ace. 


dominos 


servos 


regna 


gener, son-in-law. 


ager, field. 


vir, man. 


Stem 


genero- 


agro- 

Singular. 


viro- 


N. & V. 


gener 


ager 


vir 


Gen. 


generi 


agri 


viri 


D. & A. 


genero 


agr5 


viro 


Ace. 


generum 


agrum 
Plural. 


virum 


N. & V. 


generi 


agri 


viri 


Gen. 


generorum 


agrorum 


virorum 


D. & A. 


generis 


agris 


viris 


Ace. 


generos 


agros 


viros 



* The only nouns in -ir are vir (man), and (chiefly in late Latin) levir, 
husband's brother. 



SECOND DECLENSION. — CASE-FORMS. 31 

EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

96. The following nouns are — 
(1.) Feminine : — 

alvos, belly. diphthongus, diphthong. 

atomus, atom. humus, ground. 

carbasus, flax, sail. v annus, grain-fan. 

coins, distaff. 
Also most names of countries, towns, islands, trees, plants, 
and gems (cf. 81, ii.), with a few other comparatively rare 
nouns. 

(2.) Neuter: — 

pelagus, sea ; virus, poison ; and generally volgus, crowd. 

CASE-FORMS. 

97. (1.) Stems in ro- preceded by a consonant gener- 
ally form the nominative by dropping the stem vowel o 
and developing a parasitic e before the r (see 64), as in 
ager. (Cf. paradigm.) 

(2.) In the following nouns the e belongs to the stem, 
and is of course retained through all the cases, as in gener. 
(Cf. paradigm.) 

adulter, adulterer. puer, boy. 

gener, son-in-law. socer, father-in-law. 

Liber, Bacchus. vesper, evening. 

Also the compounds from fero and gero which end in -fer or 
-ger; as, Lucifer, the morning star (i. e., light-bringer) ; armiger, 
armor-bearer. 

(3.) The locative of the second declension ends in -I in 
the singular, and in -is (like the ablative) in the plural ; 
as, Corinthi, at Corinth ; Veis, at Yeii. 

(4.) Nouns in -ius and -ium formed the genitive singu- 
lar in -I (not -ii) until about 45 B. C. Thus : gladius, 
gladi ; negotium, negoti. In proper names the single -I 
in the genitive was retained much later. 



32 INFLECTION. 

(5.) The vocative singular of proper names in -ius and 
-ium, and of the nouns films, son, and genius, guardian 
spirit, drops the e. Thus : Mercuri, fill, geni. Other 
nouns in -ius are not found in the vocative singular. 

a. The accent of these genitives and vocatives is on the penult 
even though short ; as, Mercuri. 

(6.) Deus, god, is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural. 

N. and V. deus del, dii, di 

Gen. del deorum, deum 

Dat. and Abl. deo dels, diis, dis 

Ace. deum de5s 

a. The forms dei, dels are more common than dii, diis, di, 
dis, until after Cicero's time. 

(7.) Nouns denoting money, weight, or measure gener- 
ally retain the old form -urn (-6m) instead of -orum in the 
genitive plural; as, nummum, of coin; modium, of bushels. 

a. Many other such genitives occur in verse ; and the follow- 
ing are sometimes found in prose : deum, dmimvirum, fabrum 
(always when used with jpraefectus) : also liberum (meaning 
children), and socium when used of the Italian allies. 

For other rare old forms, ef. Biieheler's Grundriss. 

GREEK NOUNS. 
98. Greek nouns in the second declension end in -os, 
-os, or -us masculine (or feminine), -on neuter. They 
are thus declined : — 

Nom. Delos Androgeos Orpheus barbiton (lyre) 

Dat. Deli Androgeo (-1) Orphei (-os) barbiti 
Gen. Delo Androgeo Orphei (-5) barbito 



Ace. 


Delon 
(-urn) 


Androgeo 

(-on) 


Orphea 


barbiton 


Voc. 


Dele 


Androgeos 


Orpheu 


barbiton 


Abl. 


Delo 


Androgeo 


Orpheo 


barbito 



THIRD DECLENSION. — CONSONANT STEMS. 33 

a. The plural is like that of pure Latin nouns, except that the 
nominative sometimes ends in -oe ; as, Adelphoe ; and the 
genitive (especially in titles of books) in -on ; as, Georgicon, of 
the Georgics. 

b. Proper names in -er (Greek -pos) are generally declined 
as pure Latin nouns. Thus : Alexander, Antipater ; gen. 
Alexandri, Antipatri. 

c. Isolated forrn^, corresponding directly to the Greek, are the 
neuter plurals (nom. and ace.) pelage (of pelagus, sea), cete 
(of eetus, whale), and Tempe ; the nominative Panthus and 
vocative Panthu ; the genitive Menandru. 

d. Iesus has accusative Iesum, and in all other cases Iesil. 

THIRD DECLENSION. 

99. The third declension, unlike the others, includes 

two * kinds of stems, the i- stems and the consonant stems. 

It has also two u- stems, which are treated like consonant 

stems. 

CONSONANT STEMS. 

100. Consonant stems can be conveniently studied in 
the following three groups : — 

1. Those which add s to form the nominative singular. 

2. Those which have no s in the nominative singular. 

3. Those which were originally s- stems. 

In all of these groups the nominative sometimes has 
the stem vowel varied. (See below.) 

Nouns Adding S in Nominative Singular. 

101. The nominative singular is formed by adding s in 
the case of masculine and feminine mute stems, of the two 
u- stems, and of the only stem in m-.f 

* The third declension thus really includes two declensions, but the case- 
forms for i- stems and those for consonant stems fell tog-ether to such an 
extent as the language grew that it is best to combine the two kinds of 
stems in one declension. 

t This is the stem Mem-, which besides adding s in the nominative de- 
velops a parasitic p. Thus : hiemps, f . , winter, gen. hiemis. 



34 



INFLECTION. 



a. A labial mute (b or p) remains unchanged before s, a pala- 
tal (o or g) unites with s to form x, a dental (d or t) disappears 
before s. The two u- stems lengthen the stem vowel. 

b. Four dental stems also lengthen the stem vowel : ped-, 
nom. pes, m., foot ; abiet-, nom. abies, f., fir-tree ; ariet-, nom. 
aries, m., ram ; pariet-, nom. paries, m., wall. 

c. Mute stems with i before the mute usually show e instead 
of i in the nominative ; as, milit-, nom. mlles i m., soldier ; remig-, 
nom. remex, m., oarsman. So also aucup-, nom. auceps, m., 
bird-catcher. Exceptions are calie-, nom. calix, m., cup ; lapid-, 
nom. lapis, m., stone ; and Greek stems in id-. 

d. The stem bov~ makes bos, c.,* ox or cow ; niv- (originally 
nigv-) makes nix, f., snow ; coniug- has a parasitic n in the 
nominative. Thus : eoniunx, c, spouse, gen. coniugis. 

102. Such nouns are thus declined : — 



forceps, c, rex, m., lapis, m., miles, m., sus, c. 
king stone soldier swine 



Stem 



N. andV. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Aee. 

Abl. 



pincers 
forcip- 



reg- 



lapid- 



milit- su- 



Singular. 



forceps 
forcipis 
forcipi 



rex lapis miles sus 

regis lapidis militis suis 

regi lapidi militl sui 

forcipem regem lapidem militem suem 

forcipe rege lapide milite sue 

Plural. 



N. Ace. and V. forcipes reges lapides milites su§3 

Gen. forcipum regum lapidum militum suum 

Dat. and Abl. forcipibus regibus lapidibus militibus subus (suibus) 

Noons with No S in Nominative Singular. 
103. Stems in 1-, n-, or r-, and the few neuters in t- 
(also one in d-f ), add no s, but themselves serve as nomi- 
natives, either unchanged or with the following modifica- 
tions : — 

* I. e. , common gender. 

t Namely, cord-, nom. cor, heart. 



THIRD DECLENSION. CONSONANT STEMS. 



35 



a. Sal-, nom. sal, m., salt ; lar-, nom. Lav, m., hearth-god ; 
and the Greek stems aer-, nom. aer, m., air ; and aether-, 
nom. aether, m., upper air, lengthen the stem vowel. The stem 
calcar- shortens the vowel : calcar, n., spur. 

b. Stems ending in two consonants drop the second (cf . 69 iii.) ; 
as, mell-, nom. mel, n., honey. Two also lengthen the vowel : 
lact-, nom. lac, n., milk; and farr-, nom. far, n., spelt. 

c. Stems in on- and those in din- or gin- drop the n and end 
the nominative in 5 ; as, leon-, nom. led, m., lion ; virgin-, nom. 
virgd, f., maiden. So also turbin-, nom. turbo, m., whirlwind; 
and earn-, nom. card, f., flesh. Cf. homin-, nom. homo, m., man. 

d. Other stems in in- show en in the nominative ; as, carmin-, 
nom. carmen, n., song ; flamin-, nom. flamen, m., (a kind of) 
priest. 

e. Stems in tr- develop a parasitic e in the nominative ; as, 
patr-, nom. pater, m., father ; matr-, nom. mater, f., mother. (Cf. 
also Vowel stems, 108, b, and 97, 1.) 

/. The stem capit- makes caput, n., head. Greek neuter 
stems in at- drop the t ; as, poemat-, nom. poema, n., poem. 

104. Such nouns are thus declined : — 



consul, m., consul leo, m., lion virgo, f., maiden 



Stem 



N. & V. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 



cSnsul- 



leon- 



Singular. 

consul leo 

c5nsulis leonis 

consul! leoni 

consulem leonem 

consule leone 



N. Ace. & Y. consules 
Gen. consulum 

Dat. & Abl. consulibus 



Plural. 

Ie5nes 

leonum 

leonibus 



virgin- 



virgo 

virginis 

virgin! 

virginem 

virgine 



virgmes 

virginum 

virginibus 



36 INFLECTION. 

nomen, n., name caput, n., head pater, m., father 



Stem 



nomin- 



capit- 



patr- 







Singular. 




N.&V. 


nomen 


caput 


pater 


Gen. 


nominis 


capitis 


patris 


Dat. 


nominl 


capiti 


patri 


Ace. 


nSmen 


caput 


patrem 


Abl. 


nomine 


capite 
Plural. 


patre 


N.A.&V 


. nomina 


capita 


patres 


Gen. 


nominum 


capitum 


patrum 


D. & Ab. 


nominibus 


capitibus 


patribus 



Stems Originally Ending in S. 

105. Of the many nouns which originally had s- stems, 
only vets, n., vase, gen. vasis, retains the s in declension, 
and this noun passes in the plural into the second declen- 
sion (see paradigm, 107). In the other nouns s becomes 
r in declension, i. e., between two vowels. (Cf. 67.) 

106. These nouns show the following forms in the 
nominative singular : — 

a. Some masculine nouns in -OS retain the original form ; as, 
fids, flower, gen. fioris ; more commonly, however, they have 
-or ; as, amor, love, gen. amoris. A few have both forms ; as, 
horios or honor, honor. So the feminine arbos or arbor, tree, 
gen. arboris. 

b. Neuter stems in or- (orig. os-) generally have the nomina- 
tive in -us ; as, corpus, body, gen. corporis. They frequently 
have the stem vowel weakened to e in the oblique cases; as, 
opus, work, gen. operis. A few have -ur in the nominative ; 
as, robur, strength, gen. roboris. 

c. After the analogy of neuters are formed the masculines 
lepus, hare, gen. leporis ; Ligus, Ligurian, gen. Liguris ; and 
the feminine Venus, gen. Veneris. 

d. The original s appears also in the following : — 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



STEMS ORIGINALLY IN S. 



37 



Stem Nom. Stem Nom. 

aer- aes, n., copper. mur- mus, c, mouse. 

Cerer- Ceres, f., Ceres. pur- pus, n., pus. 

criir- eras, n., leg. rur- rus, n., country. 

glir- glls, m., dormouse. tellur- telliis, f., earth. 

w- ^7s, n., right. tur- tils, n., frankincense. 

mar- mas, m., male being. 

e. A few masculine stems in er- have the nominative in -is, 
either alone or beside a form in -er. These are : — 

Stem Nom. 

ciner- cinis, ashes. 

pulver- pulvis, dust. 

i ™ w f>i ploughshare. 

{^vomis, ) r & 

107. Such nouns are thus declined. : — 

flos, m., flower honor, m., honor pulvis, m., dust 



vomer- 



Stem fl5r- 


honor- 

Singular. 


pulver- 


N. & V. flos 


honos ) 
honor \ 


pulvis 


Gen. floris 


honoris 


pulveris 


Dat. flSri 


honor! 


pulveri 


Ace. florem 


honorem 


pulverem 


Abl. fiore 


honore 
Plural. 


pulvere 


N. Ace. & V. fLSres 


honores 


pulveres 


Gen. florum 


honorum 


pulverum 


Dat. & Abl. floribus 


honoribus 


pulveribus 


corpus, n., body 


opus, n., work 


vas, n., vase 


Stem corpor- 


oper- 

Singular. 


vas- 


N.Acc. &Y. corpus 


opus 


vas 


Gen. corporis 


operis 


vasis 


Dat. corpori 


operl 


vasi 


Abl. corpore 


opere 
Plural. 


vase 


N. Ace. & V. corpora 


opera 


vasa 


Gen. corporum 


operum 


vasorum 


Dat. & Abl. corporibus 


operibus 


vasis 



38 



INFLECTION. 



I- STEMS. 
108. Masculine and feminine i- stems add s to form the 
nominative. Neuters add no s, but show e instead of i in 
the nominative. Those in ali- and ari- drop the i and 
shorten the a.* Thus : 

Stem Nom. 

sitir sitis, i., thirst. 

marl- mare, n., sea. 

animall- animal, n., living thing. 

exemplar i- exemplar, n., pattern. 

a. But a number of nouns, chiefly feminine, form the nomina- 
tive in -es. The common ones are as follows : — 



aedes, f., temple (also aedis). 

caedes, f., bloodshed. 

clddes, f., disaster. 

compages, f., joint (in building). 

fames, f., hunger. 

feles, f., cat. 

labes, f., ruin. 

lues,f., plague. 

moles, f., mass. 

nubes, f., cloud. 

palumbes, c, wood-pigeon. 



proles, f., offspring. 
pubes, f., youth. 
sedes, f., seat. 
sordes, f., dirt. 
strages, f., carnage. 
strues, f., heap. 
suboles, i., offspring. 
tabes, f., wasting. 
torques, c, necklace. 
vates, c, seer. 
vepres, m., bramble. 



b. A few stems in bri- and tri- drop the i- and develop a 
parasitic e. (Cf. 103, e, and 97, 1.) Thus: — 

Stem Nom. 

imbri- imber, m., shower. 

lintri- linter, f., boat. 

Note. There was a tendency on the part of nouns with i- stems to 
pass into consonant stems, and between the nouns with complete i- stem 
forms and those with complete consonant stem forms are found various 
words whose forms show different stages in the passage from the former 
to the latter. 



* Such nouns were originally neuter adjectives. 



THIRD DECLENSION. — CONSONANT AND I- STEMS. 39 

> o O X > > o Q 3 £ B" S. 

* ^ < < ° 3 CO 



o 






o 



s Hl 5 « <» E- J 8 P P cd 

s • - ^^ S 

® p £ 

li BBSS B B B B B B ,B crj 

=» p p g £ p p p P P g cd P CD r „ P 

s I a | | 2, g a g. 3 ?• p 3 8 §■ aq 

2- ■ - § ~ 8 

° o § P 

t n n $ z n $ n ? n I s » s^og* 

I 2- | g- 3' * r H1 * « r s j? | g; " 

B" * § £L ET. 



Cfi CTQ 

o 



w H. M W hm M. •* «• »* ►* M. I" 1 * 2. tT* 

EBB'S BBBBB^ B B p a ® 

Ills II *, j ir- s f- &° q b 






J? ^crq 



crq CD 



p tj* tj 1 tr p p &* f P V 

o o o 5 ooooo o 






P aq 



CO 



CDI 



S" © 






g s 1 1 g g g g g g §. 
r || r • | " * * ? | 



CD © CD CD CD CD © © CD 

£► pt c* eh et e+ et- £+• e+ 

D| pi PI pi PI PI PI P< P> 

5- et et e* et el- et et o» 






et et- 
CDI a © 



o 

GO 
et 


1 o 


CD 

a 


m' 


V 


o 




o 


Cfi 


" 


pi 


O 




p 


b 




CD 


p 




3 


3 


& 


5" 


Cfi 

CD 


CDI 


j— -■ 


B 


J 8 


i-i 


w 


* 


cd 

ct- 

P 


p 

3 






PLj 




B" 








I-" 




B" 


1 




aq 


et- 


CD 
et 

pi 


et- 


CD 

B 


CD 


w 


r" 


V 


a - 


■* 


Tfl 


CD 




e+- 
CD 

B 


I" 



40 



INFLECTION. 



a. Besides nouns like aetas, the nouns which 
stems in the singular and i- stems in the plural 
following monosyllables : — 

Nom. 

arx, f., citadel 



dens, m., tooth 
dos, i., dowry 
fons, m., fountain 
fur, m., thief 
mas, m., male 
mons, m., mountain 
nix, i., snow 
nox, f., night 
pons, m., bridge 
strix, f., screech-owl 
urbs, f., city 



Stem 

arc{i)- 
dent(i)- 
ddt(i)- 
fontiiy 
fur{%y 
mar(iy 
mont{i)- 
niv(i)- 
noctiiy 
pont(iy 
strig(iy 
urb(i)- 



have consonant 
are chiefly the 

Gen. 

arcis 
dentis 
dotis 
fontis 
furis 
maris 
montis 
nivis 
noctis 
pontis 
strigis 
urbis 



PECULIAR NOUNS. 

110. Three nouns, vis, force, os, bone, and bos, ox or 
cow, show peculiarities of declension which are best seen 
when the nouns are given in full. Thus : — 

vis, f., force. os, n., bone, bos, c, ox or cow. 

Sing, vl- 
Stem -o 7 . . oss(i)- bov- 

Plur. viri- v J 

Singidar. 

Nom. & V. vis os bos 

Gen. vis (rare) ossis bovis 

Dat. ossi bovi 

Ace. vim os bovem 

Abl. vi osse bove 

Plural. 
N., A. & V. vires ossa boves 

Gen. virium ossium bourn 

Dat. & Abl. viribus ossibus bobus or bubus 

111. Other peculiar forms are as follows : — 

(1.) Senex, m., old person, has a shorter stem in the oblique 



THIRD DECLENSION. REMARKS ON CASE-EORMS. 41 

cases and in the plural. Thus : gen. senis, dat. sent, ace. 
senem, etc. 

(2.) Card, f., flesh, gen. carnis, has genitive plural carnium. 

(3.) Iuppiter, m., Jupiter (Father Jove), has in the oblique 
cases Iovis, lovi, Iovem, love. 

(4.) Three nouns have a longer stem in the oblique cases 

than in the nominative. They are : — 

Nom. & Voc. iter, n., road, iecur, n., liver. supellex, f., furniture. 

Gen. itineris iecinoris or iecoris supellectilis 

Dat. itineri iecinori or ieeorl supellectili 

etc. etc. etc. 

Note 1. The following monosyllabic nouns are not used in the genitive 
plural : cor, n., heart ; cos, f., whetstone ; fax, f., torch ; faex, f., dregs ; 
lux,i., light; nex, i., death; os, n., mouth; pax, f., peace; praes, m., 
bondsman; ros, n., dew; sal, m., salt; sol, m., sun; tus, n., frankincense; 
vas, m., voucher ; ver, n., spring. 

Note 2. Ius, n., right, and rus, n., country, have in the plural only the 
nominative and accusative cases. 

REMARKS ON CASE-FORMS. 

112. The locative ending of the third declension is -I 
or ~© for the singular, -ibus (as in the ablative) for the 
plural. Thus : Kartliagini or ITarthagine, at Carthage ; 
Sardibus, at Sardis. 

113. The accusative singular ends in -im in the follow- 
ing words : — 

a. Always in Greek words, as Daphnis, and in names of 
rivers, as Tiberis, and in — 

buris, plough-handle. sitis, thirst. 

cucumis, cucumber. tussis, cough. 

ravis, hoarseness. vis, force. 

Also in adverbs which were once accusatives, like partim, 
amussim, etc. 

b. Sometimes in — 

febris, fever. turris, tower. 

puppis, stern. securis, axe. 

restis, rope. sementis, a sowing. 
And rarely in several other words. 



42 



INFLECTION. 



114. The ablative singular ends in -I in the follow- 
ing : — 

<x. Always in the words which have only -im in the accusa- 
tive, and in securis. 

b. In certain adjectives used as nouns : — 

aequdlis, a contemporary. gentilis, a family connection. 
annalis, a historical record, moldris, a mill-stone. 
aqualis, a wash-basin. primipilaris, a military officer. 

consularis, an ex-consul. tribidis, sl fellow tribesman. 

c. In neuters, except the following : — 

baccar, a plant ; iubar, a ray of light ; nectar, nectar ; and 
sometimes (in verse), mare, sea, and rete, net. 

d. Sometimes in the following : — 



finis, end. 
Ignis, fire. 
imber, shower. 
mane, morning. 
messis, harvest. 
navis, ship. 



ovis, sheep. 
pelvis, basin. 
sementis, sowing. 
sors, lot. 

strigilis, flesh-scraper. 
turris, tower. 



amnis, river. 
avis, bird. 
axis, axle. 
bllis, bile. 
classis, fleet. 
clavis, key. 
febris, fever. 

And the following adjectives used as nouns : — 
adflnis, a connection by marriage, rivalis, rival. 
bipennis, two-edged axe. sapiens, philosopher. 

canalis, water-pipe. triremis, trireme. 

familiaris, friend. vocalis, vowel. 

natalis, birth-day. aedilis, aedile (rarely). 

115. The ablative singular ends in -e in fames, hunger, 
and in -e in Soracte and in most names of towns which 
end in -e, as Praeneste. 

116. The genitive plural ends in -um in the following 
nouns (though they have i- stems) : — 

a. Always in — 

canis, dog ; iuvenis, youth (originally consonant stems). 
ambages, riddle ; volucris, bird. 



THIRD DECLENSION. — GENDER. 43 

b. Sometimes in — 

apis, bee. sedes, seat. 

caedes, bloodshed. strues, pile. 

clddes, disaster. suboles, offspring. 

mens is, month. vates, bard. 

c. Also in nouns in -tas ; as, eivitas, gen. plur. cwitatum or 
eivitatium ; and rarely in names denoting nationality, in -as, 
-atis, or -is, -ltis ; as, Arplnas, Samriis. 

117. The accusative plural in -Is is common with 
i- stems, but -es is also found in all words. 

a. In the nominative plural -is is very rare. An old form in 
-eis also occurs in both accusative and nominative. 

Note. For other old or rare forms see Biicheler's Grundrvss. 

GENDER. 

118. (1.) Nouns with the following endings are mas- 
culine : — 

-er, -es, -or, -os, -5 (except -do, -go, and abstracts and 
collectives in -i5), also -n (except -men). 

(2.) Nouns with the following endings are feminine : — 

-as, -es, -is, -us, -ys, -s preceded by a consonant, -do, 
-go, and abstracts and collectives in -io. 

(3.) Nouns with the following endings are neuter : — 

-a, -e, -I, -y, -o, -1, -t, -men, -ar, -ur, -iis. 

119. The most common exceptions to these rules are as 
follows : — 

(1.) Masculine are — 

as, a piece of money, mensis, month. pons, bridge. 

vas, bondsman. orbis, circle. aries, ram. 

amnis, river. panis, bread. paries, wall. 

collis, hill. unguis, nail. pes, foot. 

ensis, sword. dens, tooth. ordo, order. 

ignis, fire. fons, spring. sol, sun. 

lapis, stone. mons, mountain. 



44 



INFLECTION. 



(2.) Feminine are — 
arbor, tree. 
dos, dowry. 

(3.) Common are — 



seges, crop. 
pecus,* sheep. 



bos, ox or cow. 
custos, guard. 
sacerdos, priest or 

priestess. 
torques, necklace. 
votes, bard. 
anguis, snake. 

(4.) Neuter are — 



canis, dog. 
cinis, ashes. 
civis, citizen. 
crinis, hair. 
finis, end. 
funis, rope. 
hostis, enemy. 



iuvenis, youth. 
pulvis, dust. 
testis, witness. 
calx, lime. 
calx, heel. 
mus, mouse. 
sus, swine. 



inguen, groin. 
unguen, ointment. 
crus, leg. 
ius, right. 
rus, country. 
tus, frankincense. 



cadaver, corpse. cor, heart. 

papaver, poppy. aes, copper. 

iter, road. fas, right. 

Tiber, teat. nefas, wrong. 

ver, spring. vas, vase. 

verber, scourge. os, mouth. 

aequor, sea. os, bone. 

Less common exceptions are as follows : — 

120. Masculine are — 

(1.) Greek nouns in as (gen. -antis); as, elephas, ele- 
phant ; also, axis, axle ; burls, plough-handle ; caulis, 
stalk ; cucumis, cucumber ; fastis, bundle ; follis, bel- 
lows ; fustis, club ; piscis, fish ; postis, post ; torris, fire- 
brand ; vectis, lever ; vermis, worm ; vomis, plough-share. 

(2.) Caiix, cup; fornix, arch ; phoenix, a fabulous bird; 
onyx, a precious stone ; quincunx, septunx, etc. ; auceps, 
bird-catcher ; chalybs, steel ; cliens, client ; quadrans, 
sextans, etc. ; compounds of dens, except bidens, sheep. 

(3.) comedo, glutton ; cardo, hinge ; harpago, grap- 
pling-hook ; sal, salt (sometimes neuter in singular) ; tur- 
tur, turtle dove ; vultur, vulture ; flamen, a kind of priest. 

* Priscian quotes it once from Ennius as masculine, and a neuter plural 
form pecuda is found. 



THIRD DECLENSION. — GREEK NOUNS. 45 

(4.) Generally, also, callis, path ; canalis, water-pipe ; 
clunis, haunch; corbis, basket ; sentis, brier ; grex, herd; 
pumex, pumice stone ; senex, old person ; rudens, rope ; 
tigris (in prose ; always feminine in poetry), tiger. 

121. Feminine are linter, boat ; merges, sheaf ; cos, 
whetstone ; eos, morning ; card, flesh ; and Greek nouns 
in -o, like echo, echo. 

122. Common are antistes, priest; palurnbes, wood- 
pigeon ; cortex, bark ; obex, barrier ; onyx (meaning an 
onyx box) ; sardonyx, a precious stone ; sandyx, the 
color scarlet ; silex, flint ; forceps, pincers ; scrobs, ditch ; 
serpens, serpent ; sti7ps, tree trunk. 

123. Neuter are Greek nouns in -as (genitive -atis), 
and in -es; as, hippomanes ; also, cicer, chick-pea; piper, 
pepper ; spinter, a kind of bracelet ; tuber, a swelling ; 
ador, spelt ; marmor, marble ; gluten, glue. 

GREEK NOUNS. 

124. Greek nouns in the third declension seldom show 
Greek forms except in the genitive and accusative singu- 
lar and accusative plural. Examples of their declension 
are as follows : — 

herds, m., hero, lampas, f., torch, basis, f., base. 
Singular. 



N.&V. 


,heros 


lampas 


basis 


G. 


herois 


lamp ados 


basis (-eos) 


D. 


heroi 


lampadi 


basi 


Ac. 


her5a 


lampada 


basin 


Ab. 


heroe 


lampade 

Plural. 


basi 


N.&V. 


heroes 


lampades 


bases 


G. 


heroum 


lampadum 


basium 


D. & Ab 


. herSisin 


lampadibus 


basibus 


Ac. 


heroas 


lampadas 


basis (-eis) 



46 


] 


tNFLECTION. 






tigris, c.j tiger. 


nais, f., naiad, chelys, f., lyre. 






Singula?'. 




N. 
G. 
D 


tigris 

tigris (-idos) 
tigri 

tigrin (-ida) 
tigris 
tigri (-ide) 


nais 

naidos 

naidi 

naida 

nais 

naide 


chelys 




XJ. 

Ac. 
V. 

Ab. 


cheiyn 
chely 








Plural. 




N & 


5 V. tigres 

tigrium 
5 Ab. tigribus 

tigris (-idas) 


naides 
naidum 
naidibus 
naidas 




G. 
D & 






XJ. \A 

Ao 




Xi-C 


■ 






Proper Names. 




Examples of the declension of Greek proper names are 
as follows : — 




m. 


f. 


m. 


N; 
G. 
D. 

Ac. 
V. 

Ab. 


Socrates 
Socratis (-1) 
Socrati 

SScratem (-en) 
S5 crates (-e) 
Socrate 


Did5 

Didus (-5nis) 
Did5 (-oni) 
Dido (-onem) 
Dido 
Dido (-one) 


Simois 

Simoentis 

Simoenti 

Simoenta 

Simois 

Simoente 




m. 


m. 




N. 

G. 

D. 

Ac. 

V. 

Ab. 


Capys 

Capyos 

Capyi 

Capyn 

Capy 

Capye 


Daphnis 

Daphnidis 

Daphnidi 

Daphnim (-in) 

Daphni 

Daphni 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 47 

Special Forms. 

125. (1.) Like Si?nois are declined stems in ant-, ent-, 
ont-, unt-; as, adamas, gen. adamantis ; Xenophon, 
gen. Xenophontis ; Trapezus, gen. Trapezuntis, etc. 

(2.) But some in ont- are thoroughly latinized and de- 
clined like Draco, gen. Draconis. So also Agamemnon 
or Agamemno, but with short o in the stem, Agamemno- 
nis, etc. 

(3.) Stems in ant- have the Latin form in the nomina- 
tive sometimes as, Atlans, elephdns; and also have a, in 
the vocative as, Atla. 

(4.) Neuters in -a have a dative and ablative plural in 
-is after the fashion of the second declension ; as, poema, 
dat. and abl. poematis. 

FOURTH DECLENSION 

126. The fourth declension consists of nouns whose 
stems end in u-. The nominative singular ends in -us 
masc. (and fern.), -u. neuter. Thus : — 

fructus, m., fruit. cornu, m., horn. 

Stem friictu- cornu- 

Singidar. 



Nom. & Voc. 


fructus 


cornu 


Gen. 


fructus 


cornus 


Dat. 


fructui (-u) 


cornu 


Ace. 


fructum 


cornu 


Abl. 


fructu 

Plural. 


cornu 


Nom. & Voc. 


fructus 


cornua 


Gen. 


fructuum 


cornuum 


Dat. 


fructibus 


cornibus 


Ace. 


fructus 


cornua 


Abl. 


fructibus 


cornibus 



48 INFLECTION. 

EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

127. The following nouns are feminine : — 

acus, needle. manus, hand. 

colus, distaff. porticus, gallery. 

domus, house. Qiiinquatrus (pi.), Feast of 

ficus, fig. Minerva. 

Idus, pi. Ides. tribus, tribe. 
Also a few by signification ; and rarely arcus, bow ; penus, pro- 
visions ; specus, cave. 

a. Secus, sex, is neuter. 

CASE-FORMS. 

128. (1.) Old genitives in -uos and -uis are found in 
some words ; as, senatuos ; fructuis. 

(2.) A genitive in I-, after the analogy of the second 
declension, is found in senciti, and in early Latin in a 
few other words. 

(3.) A few datives in u- occur. 

(4.) A contracted genitive plural in -um is also 
found. 

129. The following nouns retain the u- of the stem 
(not weakened to i-)* in the dative and ablative plural. 

artus, limb, dat. and abl. pi. artubus. 
partus, birth, " partubus. 

portus, harbor, " (portubus). 

tribus, tribe, " tribubus. 

veru, spit, " (verubus). 

a. All but partus have also the form in -ibus, in classical 
times. With portus and veru that is the commoner form. 

b. Words of two syllables in -cus have more commonly 
-ubus in the ablative ; as, laeus, laeubus. 

130. Domus, house, has two stems, domu- and domo-, 

* Cf. 59, and 90. 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 49 

and is declined as follows (the commoner form in each 

case is put first) : — 

domus, f., house. 
Stem domu- and domo- 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. & Voc. domus domus 

Gen. domus, domi domuum, domorum 

Dat. domui, dom5 domibus 

Ace. domum domos, domus 

Abl. domo (domu.) domibus 

a. Domi is used only as locative, except in Plautus. A 
locative domui also occurs. 

131. Most names of plants, and colus, distaff, have also 
forms of the second declension; j^ernts, provisions, has 
forms in both the second and third declensions,* 

/ FIFTH DECLENSION. 

132. The fifth declension consists of the nouns whose 
stems end in e-. The nominative singular ends in -es. 
All the nouns are feminine except dies (common in the 
singular, masculine in the plural) and meridies (mas- 
culine). They are thus declined : — 



res, thing. 


Stem 


re- 


Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. & Voc. res 




res 


Gen. rei 




rerum 


Dat. rei 




rebus 


Ace. rem 




res 


Abl. re 




rebus 



* The fourth declension seems to have been an offshoot from the third. 
Cf. genitive forms like nominus, from nornen, and sendtuos, from sendtus. 
Later, confusion arose between the fourth and the second declensions 
through their similarity in the nominative singular. Hence forms like 
sendtl, domorum. 



50 



) 


INFLECTION 






dies, day. 


Stem die- 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Norn. 


& Voc. dies 


dies 


Gen. 


diel 


dierum 


Dat. 


die! 


diebus 


Ace. 


diem 


dies 


Abl. 


die 


diebus 



a. Dies is as a rule feminine only when it denotes duration 
of time or a fixed day. 

CASE-FORMS. 

133. (1.) Old forms of both genitive and dative singu- 
lar in -e and -I, and of genitive only in -es, occur, but rarely ; 
as, fide, dii, rabies. Plebi is common as a genitive. 

(2.) Only res and dies are used in full in the plural. 
The nominative, accusative, and vocative plural are found 
in the following : — 

acies, line of battle, fades, face. series, series. 

effigies, effigy. glacies, ice. species, shape, form. 

elavies, overflowing, progenies, offspring, spes, hope. 

(3.) The stem vowel is shortened in the genitive and da- 
tive singular when a consonant precedes it ; as, rel, from 
res, thing ; fidei, from fides, faith ; spei, from spes, hope. 

a. All the nouns of the fifth declension but four — fides, ple- 
bes,* res, and spes — end in -ies, and all nouns in -ies are of this 
declension, except five of the third declension — abies, fir ; aries, 
battering ram ; paries, partition wall ; quies and requies, rest. 

b. The nouns in -ies of the fifth declension (except dies and 
meridies) generally have, especially in the genitive and dative 
singular, and in the plural, corresponding forms in the first 
declension. Thus, 7iiateria, gen. materiae, beside materies, 
gen. materiel, etc.f 

* Less common than the third declension form plebs. 

t These nouns in -ies seem to have heen developed from the stems in a- 
originally. (See Handb. der Altert., vol. ii., B., p. 203, §5.) The other nouns 
of the fifth declension — except perhaps res — were probably originally 
S- stems of the third declension, like nubes. (Cf . 108, a, 109.) 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 51 

IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

134. There are four classes of irregular nouns, as 
follows : — 

(1.) Heterogeneous nouns (heterogenea), or such as 
have forms of different genders. 

(2.) Heteroclites {heteroclitd), or nouns which have 
forms of different declensions. 

(3.) Defective nouns (defectwa), or such as lack 
some of their parts. 

(4.) Kedundant nouns (abimdantia), or such as have 
more forms than the usual number. 

135. The commonest heterogeneous nouns are the fol- 
lowing : — 

(1.) Masculine in singular, neuter in plural : — 

Avernus, a certain 

lake, plural Averna. 
Tartarus, the lower 

regions, " Tartar a. 

iocus, jest, " ioci and ioca. 

, , " ( loci, passages in books ; topics. 

( loca, places. 

sibilus, whistling, " sibill and slbila. 

(2.) Feminine in singular, neuter in plural : — 

carbasus, sail, plural carbasa. 

(3.) Neuter in singular, masculine in plural: — 

caelum, heaven, plural caeli. 

frenum, bridle, " freni andfrena. 

rastrum, rake, " rastri, and more rarely rdstra. 

(4.) Neuter in singular, feminine in plural : — 

epidum, feast, plural epidae. 

balneum, bath, " balneae and balnea. 

nundinum, market day, " nundinae. 



52 INFLECTION. 

136. Examples of heteroclites are as follows : — 

iugerum, n., acre. vas, n., 
Singular. 

Nom. & Ace. iugerum vas 

Gen. iugeri vasis, 

Dat. iugero vasi 

Abl. iugerS and (iugere) vase 

Plural. 

Nom. & Ace. iugera vasa 

Gen. iugerum vasorum 

Dat. & Abl. iugeribus and iugeris vasis 

a. Vesper, evening, has also vespera, ace. vesperum, more 
rarely vesperam, abl. vespere and vespera, and as ablative of 
time (see 424) generally the locative from vesperi. It has no 
plural. 

b. Requies, rest, has ace. requiem oftener than requietem ; 
abl. requie. 

Note. The student will remember other examples of heteroclite forms 
already met under the different declensions. 

137. The commonest defective nouns are the follow- 
ing:— 

(1.) Indeclinable (ind"eclinabilid) are — 

fas, right. Instar, image. 

nefas, wrong. mane, morning. 

nihil, nothing. pondo, weight. 

a. The first four are used only in the nominative and accusa- 
tive, but nihil has a collateral form nihilum, nihili, nihilo ; mane 
is used in the nominative, accusative, and ablative. (Cf. 114, d.) 

(2.) Friigis, of fruit, and dicionis, of sway, have no 
nominative. 

(3.) Nemo, no one, has no vocative and no plural, and 
in classical Latin no genitive and no ablative ; these cases 
are supplied by the pronominal adjective nullus. 

(4.) The following are used only as given : — 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 



53 



help (sing.), turn, 

power (plur.). 

Singular. 



Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 



opis 

opera 
ope 



impetus, fors, 
attack. chance. 



impetus fors 



Nom. & Ace. opes 
Gen. opum 

Dat. & Abl. opibus 



vicis 

vicem 
vioe 

Plural. 
vices 



impetu 

impetum 

impetu forte 



impetus 



vicibus 



a. Sponte, will, accord, is used only in the ablative singular. 
So also various nouns of the fourth declension, as admonitu, 
iussu, arbitratu, natii, etc. 

See also under the third declension, 110, and fifth declension, 133. 

138. (1.) Proper names, and some other nouns, from 
their meaning naturally have no plural. The following 
nouns also lack the plural : — 



aether, the sky. 

eaenum, mud. 

ebur, ivory. 

gelu, frost. 

humus, the ground. 

iubar, radiance. 

lac, milk. 

letum, death. 

limus, mud. 
And some others which are less common. 

(2.) Abstract nouns are used in the plural as a rule 
only to denote instances or occasions of the quality, action, 
etc. See 437, 3. 

139. (1.) Names of festivals and games, and several 



lues, plague. 
mane, morning. 
pubes, youth. 
specimen, example. 
ver, spring. 
vesper, evening. 
virus, poison. 
volgus, crowd. 



54 



INFLECTION. 



names of places and books, have no singular ; as, Baccha- 
nalia, Kalendae, Bucolica, Athenae. 

(2.) Other common nouns which lack the singular are 
the following : — 



acta (2 *), records. 

altaria (3), altar. 

angustiae, narrow pass. 

argutiae, witticisms. 

arma (2), weapons. 

bigae, a two-horse chariot. 

cani, gray hairs. 

cunabula (2), > ,, 

cunae, ) 

deliciae, darling. 

dwitiae, riches. 

exmtbiae, watch. 

exsequiae, funeral rites. 

exta (2), entrails. 

exuviae, spoils. 

fasti, calendar. 

fauces (3), jaws. 

fides (3), lyre. 

grates^ (3), thanks. 

indutiae, a truce. 

140. The following nouns 

the different numbers : — 

Singidar. 

aedes, ) . £ . , 

_. > -is, i., temple, 
aedis, ) 

aqua, f., water, 

auxilium, n., aid, 

career, m., prison, 

castrum, n., fort, 



induviae, clothes. 
Insidiae, ambuscade. 
liberi, children. 
maiores (3), ancestors. 
manes (3), shades of the dead. 
manubiae, spoils of war. 
minae, threats. 
moenia (3), walls. 
munia % (2), official duties. 
nugae, trifles. 
nuptiae, a marriage. 
penates (3), household gods. 
phalerae, trappings. 
praecordia (2), diaphragm. 
quadrigae, team of four horses. 
reliquiae, remains. 
scdlae, ladder. 
tenebrae, darkness. 
virgidta (2), bushes. 

usually differ in meaning in 

Plural, 
aedes, -ium, house. 

aquae, a watering place. 
auxilia, auxiliary troops. 
earceres, racecourse barriers. 
castra, a camp. 



* The number annexed shows the declension, wherever doubt might 



t Used only in the nominative and accusative. 
t Classical only in nominative and accusative. 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. — ADJECTIVES. 



55 



codicillus, m., bit of wood, 
comitium, n., place of as- 
sembly, 
copia, £., plenty, 
faeultas, f., ability, 
finis, ra. and f., end, 
fortuna, f., fortune, 
gratia, f., favor, 
impedlmentum, n., a hin- 
drance, 
Utter a, f., letter of the al- 
phabet, 
Indus, m., pastime, 
natalis, m., birthday, 
opera, f., work, task, 
opis (gen.), f., help, 
pars, L, part, 

plaga, f., region, tract, 
rostrum, n., beak, prow, 
sal, m. and n., salt, 

Note. Examples of redundant 
geneous nouns and heteroclites. 



cddicilll, tablets. 
comitia, an assembly for elec- 
tion. 
copiae, troops, forces. 
facilitates, property. 
fines, bounds, territory. 
fortunae, possessions. 
gratiae, thanks. 
impedimenta, baggage. 

lltterae, epistle or literature. 

ludi, public games. 

natales, birth, lineage. 

operae, workmen. 

opes, -um, means, resources. 

partes, a part played, or 

(often)* political party. 
plagae, nets, toils. 
rostra, the Rostra, f 
sales, witticisms. 

nouns are seen in many of the hetero- 



ADJECTIVES. 

141. Adjectives are declined like nouns, but there are 
no u- stems $ or e- stems among them. Therefore only the 
first three declensions are used. 

142. Adjectives are best divided into two classes for 
declension : — 

I. Adjectives with o- stems in masculine and neuter, 
and a- stems in feminine. 

* The singular is occasionally so used. 

t A part of the Roman Forum which was adorned with the prows of 
some war vessels. 

t Unless the rare compounds of manus he counted an exception. An 
accusative plural in -us is found of anguimanus, once masculine, once 
feminine, in Lucretius. 



56 INFLECTION. 

II. Adjectives with i- stems or with consonant stems. 

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION. 
143. Adjectives of the first class are said to be of the 
First and Second Declension. They are declined like 
nouns of these declensions. Thus : — 







bonus, good. 






M. 


F. 


H. 


Stem 


bono- 


bona- 
Singular. 


bono- 


Norn. 


bonus 


bona 


bonum 


Gen. 


boni 


bonae 


boni 


Dat. 


bono 


bonae 


bon5 


Ace. 


bonum 


bonam 


bonum 


Voc. 


bone 


bona 


bonum 


AbL 


bono 


bona 

Plural. 


bono 


N.&V. 


boni 


bonae 


bona 


Gen. 


bonorum 


bonarum 


bonorum 


D. & A. 


bonis 


bonis 


bonis 


Ace. 


bonos 


bonas 
tener, tender. 


bona 


Stem 


tenero- 


tenera- 
Singular. 


tenero- 


N.&V. 


tener 


tenera 


tenerum 


Gen. 


teneri 


tenerae 


teneri 


Dat. 


tener5 


tenerae 


tenero 


Ace. 


tenerum 


teneram 


tenerum 


Abl. 


tenero 


tenera 
Plural. 


tenero 


N. &V. 


teneri 


tenerae 


tenera 


Gen. 


tenerorum 


tenerarum 


tenerorum 


D & A. 


teneris 


teneris 


teneris 


Ace. 


tener5s 


teneras 


tenera 



ADJECTIVES OF FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION. 57 







piger, lazy. 




Stem 


pigro- 


pigra- 

Singular. 


pigro- 


N. & V. 


piger 


pigra 


pigrum 


Gen. 


pigri 


pigrae 


pigri 


Dat. 


pigr5 


pigrae 


pigro 


Ace. 


pigrum 


pigram 


pigrum 


Abl. 


pigro 


pigra 
Plural. 


pigro 


N. &V. 


pigri 


pigrae 


pigra 


Gen. 


pigrdrum 


pigrarum 


pigrSrum 


D. &A. 


pigris 


pigris 


pigris 


Ace. 


pigros 


pigras 


pigra 



a. Adjectives in -ius have the full forms in the genitive and 
vocative singular ; as, regit and regie, from regius. 

144. In tener and the few adjectives declined like it 
the e before the r belongs to the stem, as in the case of 
analogous nouns. (Cf. 97, 2.) 

a. These adjectives are — 



miser, wretched. 
prosper, prosperous. 
satur, full (satiated). 
semi-fer, half-human. 



asper, rough. 
exter, foreign. 
gibber, crook-backed. 
laeer, torn. 
liber, free. 
And the compounds of gero and fero; as, laniger, letifer, etc. 

Note. Satur is the only adjective of the second declension having" any 
vowel but e before the final r. 

145. Six adjectives in -us and three in -er form the 
genitive singular in -ius and the dative singular in -I for 
all genders. These are — 

alius, another, totus, whole, alter, altera, alterum, the other. 
nullus, none. ullus, any. uter, utra, utrum, which of two. 
solus, alone. unus, one. neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither. 



58 



INFLECTION. 



146. They are thus declined in the singular : — 



Stem 

Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

Abl. 



M. 

uno- 

unus 

unius 

tin! 

unum 

une 

uno 



Stem alio- 

Nom. alius 

Gen. alius 

Dat. alii 

Ace. alium 
Voc. 
Abl. 

Stem 

Norn. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 

Abl. utro 
The plural is regular. 



unus, one. 

F. 

una- 

una 

unius 

uni 

unam 

una 

una 

alius, another, 
alia- 

alia 
alius 
alii 
aliam 



utra 



N. 

uno- 

unum 

unius 

uni 

unum 

tinum 

uno 



alio- 

aliud 
alius 
alii 
aliud 



alio alia 


alio 


uter, which (of two). 




utro- utra- 


utro- 


uter utra 


utrum 


utrius utrius 


utrius 


utri utrl 


utri 


utrum utram 


utrum 



utro 



a. So are declined uterque, each ; alteruter, one or the other. 

CASE-FORMS. 

147. (1.) The quantity of the i of the genitive singu- 
lar is common in poetry. 

(2.) The genitive alius is rare, alterius being used instead, 
except in the possessive sense, which is supplied by the adjective 
alienus, belonging to another. 



ADJECTIVES OF THIRD DECLENSION. 



59 



(3.) The regular forms of the genitive and dative singular are 
occasionally found, especially in early Latin ; as, nullae (gen.), 
(Plaut., Mil, iii., 1, 207) ; nullo (Caas., B. G., vi., 13). 

THIRD DECLENSION. 

148. The adjectives of Class II. are called Adjectives 
of the Third Declension. They are declined exactly like 
nouns of the third declension, except that the forms 
properly belonging to i- stems are much more common 
than in nouns. There is also much less variety in the 
endings of the nominative singular. 

149. Adjectives of the third declension may be divided 
into three classes, according* as they have — 

(1.) Three forms in the nominative singular for the 
three genders. 

(2.) Two forms in the nominative singular, one mascu- 
line and feminine, the other neuter. 

(3.) One form for all three genders. 

150. Class (1) includes only certain stems in ri-. The 
i is dropped in the nominative singular masculine ; a para- 
sitic e is then developed before the r (as in the noun 
stems under 103, e, and 108, 6). The feminine nomina- 
tive singular ends in -is, the neuter in -e, as in the corre- 
sponding nouns. Such adjectives are thus declined : — 

acer, sharp. Stem acri- 

Singular. 

M. , F. N. 

acris acre 

acris acris 

acri acri 

acrem acre 

Plural. 

acres acria 

acrium acrium 

acribus acribus 

acres (-Is) acria 



Nom. & Voc. acer 



Gen. 


acris 


Dat. & Abl. 


acri 


Ace. 


acrem 


Nom. & Voc. 


acres 


Gen. 


acrium 


Dat. & Abl. 


acribus 


Ace. 


acres (-is) 



60 



INFLECTION. 



151. The only adjectives of this class are — 

deer. celeber. pedester. Silvester. 

alacer. equester. puter. terrester. 

campester. paluster. saluber. volucer. 

celer.* 
And the names of the months September, October, November, 
December. 

a. These adjectives sometimes have the masculine singular in 
-is like the .feminine. This is especially the case with puter, 
saluber, and terrester. 

b. On the other hand, the form in -er is sometimes found as 
feminine in early and late Latin. 

c. Volucer has volucrum in the genitive plural. 

152. Class (2) includes all other i- stems, and the com- 
paratives (consonant stems). They are thus declined : — 





mitis, 


mild. 


mitior, 


milder. 


Stem 


miti- 


mitior- 






Singular. 






M. & P. 


N. 


M. & F. 


N. 


N.&V. 


mitis 


mite 


mitior 


mitius 


Gen. 


mitis 


mitis 


mitioris 


mitioris 


Dat. 


miti 


miti 


mitiori 


mitiori 


Ace. 


mitem 


mite 


mitiorem 


mitius 


Ahl. 


miti 


miti 


miti5re (-i) 


mitiore (-i) 






Plural. 




N.&V. 


mites 


mitia 


mitiores 


mitiora 


Gen. 


mitium 


mitium 


miti5rum 


miti5rum 


D.&A. 


mitibus 


mitibus 


mitiSribus 


mitioribus 


Ace. 


mites (-Is 


i) mitia 


mitiores (-is) mitiora 



153. Plils, more, has in the singular only the forms of 
the neuter gender. The plural differs from that of other 

* In this adjective the e in the final syllable belongs to the stem, and is 
retained throughout. 



ADJECTIVES OF THIRD DECLENSION. 



61 



comparatives in having -ium in the gen. plur. Certain 
forms are wanting. The declension is as follows : — 
plus, more. Stem plur- 



Singular. 

N. 

plus 
pluris 



M. & P. 


N. 


plures 


plura {rarely pluria) 


plurium 


plurium 


pluribus 


pluribus 


plures (-is) 


plura 



Nom. 
Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. plus 

Voc. 

Abl. plure {rare) pluribus pluribus 

So also the plural compound complures, a great many. 

154. Class (3) includes all consonant stems except the 
comparatives. They are thus declined : — 

felix, happy. praesens, present. 



Stem 


felic- 




praesent- 






Singular. 






M. &F. 


N. 


M. &F. 


N. 


N.,V 


. felix 


felix 


praesens 


praesens 


G. 


felicis 


felicis 


praesentis 


praesentis 


D. 


felici 


felici 


praesenti 


praesenti 


Ac. 


felicem 


felix 


praesentem 


praesens 


Ab. 


felici (-e) 


felici (-e) 


praesente (-i) 


praesente (i) 






Plural. 




N.,V 


felices 


felicia 


praesentes 


praesentia 


G. 


felicium 


felicium 


praesentium 


praesentium 


D.,A 


felicibus 


felicibus 


praesentibus 


praesentibus 


Ac. 


felices (-is) 


felicia 


praesentes (-is 


) praesentia 




vetus, old. 


Stem veter- 






Singular. 


Plural. 




M. &F. 


N. 


M. &F. 


N. 


N. & V. vetus 


vetus 


veteres 


Vetera 


G. 


veteris 


veteris 


veterum 


veterum 


D. 


veteri 


veteri 


veteribus 


veteribus 


Ac. 


veterem 


vetus 


veteres (-5 


[s) Vetera 


Ab. 


vetere (-i) vetere (-i) veteribus 


veteribus 



62 INFLECTION. 

CASE-FORMS. 
155. (1.) Adjectives, unlike nouns, tend to the forms 
of the i- declension, as is shown particularly by the abla- 
tive singular, and the genitive and accusative plural. 

(2.) The only adjectives which commonly have -e in 
the ablative singular are the comparatives and — 
compos, sharing in. praeceps, headlong. 

desidis (genitive), indolent. puber, youthful. 
dives, rich. superstes, surviving. 

pauper, poor. supplex, suppliant. 

particeps, sharing. vetus, old.* 

a. But most adjectives of one ending (Class 3, above) have -e, 
when used as nouns. So also most present participles, and par- 
ticipial adjectives like praesens, when used as participles. 

(3.) Only a few adjectives have -um in the genitive plu- 
ral. The most common are dives, compos, inops (poor), 
'praepes (swift of flight), supplex, and compounds of 
nouns which have -um. Most of these adjectives lack the 
nominative, accusative, and vocative plural altogether. 
a. Locuples has locupletum and locupletium. 
(4.) Almost all adjectives can have the accusative 
plural in -Is as well as -es, but -Is is less common in the 
adjectives with consonant stems than in those with vowel 
stems. 

(5.) Some adjectives are indeclinable, as frugi (really 
a dative of [ t /W7x]) worthy, and riequam, worthless ; potis, 
pote, possible, is sometimes used as indeclinable, some- 
times regularly declined. 

(6.) A few adjectives are used only in one or two 
forms, as : — 

exspes, without hope, only nominative. 

exlex, lawless, nominative and accusative. 

modus, honored, nominative and vocative. 

* To these may be added the ablative pernocte, which is the only obliqne 
case used of pernox, lasting all night. 



ADJECTIVES. — NUMERALS. 63 

necesse 



necessary, nominative and accusative. 
necessum ) J 

pemox, lasting all night, nominative and ablative. 

Hebes, dull ; teres, round ; and a few others, lack the genitive 

plural. Desidis, indolent, lacks also the nominative singular. 

(7.) A few adjectives (heteroclites) have besides the 

third declension form another in the second declension. 

The most common are — 

auxiliaris and auxiliarius (less common), auxiliary. 

biiugis (rare) and biiugus, yoked two together. 

exanimis (rare in plural) and exanimus, lifeless. 

hilaris and hilarus, cheerful. 

imbecillis (rare) and imbecillus, weak. 

inermis and inermits (very rare), unarmed. 

opulens and opulentus, rich. 

proelwis and proclivos (less common), sloping. 

singularis and singidarius, singular. 

violens and violentus, violent. 

Numeral Adjectives (Numeralia). 

156. Numeral adjectives are divided into three princi- 
pal classes : (1.) cardinals (cardinalia) ; (2.) ordi- 
nals (ordinalid) ; (3.) distributives (distributives). 

157. (1.) Cardinals simply denote the number of things 
meant and answer the question quot (i. e., how many) ? 
as, unus, one ; viginti, twenty. 

(2.) Ordinals denote order or rank and answer the 
question quotus (i. e., how many-eth) ? as, primus, first ; 
quintus, fifth. 

(3.) Distributives denote an equal distribution among a 
given number of persons or things, and answer the 
question quoteni (i. e., how many apiece) ? as, bzni, two 
apiece. 

(4.) For convenience the numeral adverbs are given 
with the adjectives. They answer the question quotiens 
(i. e., how many times) ? as, semel, once ; decies, ten times. 



64 



INFLECTION. 



158. The numeral adjectives (cardinals, ordinals, and 
distributives), and also the adverbs, from one to twenty, 



U-a_K,JLUJ.\ J 3_L.S. 

1 unus, -a, -um 


one 


primus 


2 duo, -se, -o 


two 


secundus 


3 tres, -ia 


three 


tertius 


4 quattuor 


four 


quartus 


5 quinque 


five 


quintus 


6 sex 


six 


sextus 


7 septem 


seven 


septimus 


8 octo 


eight 


octavus 


9 novem 


nine 


nonus 


10 decern 


ten 


decimus 


11 undecim 


eleven 


undecimus 


12 duodecim 


twelve 


duodecimus 


13 tredecim 


thirteen 


tertius decimus 


14 quattuordecim 


fourteen 


quartus decimus 


15 quindecim 


fifteen 


quintus decimus 


16 sedechn 


sixteen 


sextus decimus 


17 septendecim 


seventeen 


septimus decimus 


18 duodeviginti 


eighteen 


duodevicesimus 


19 undeviginti 


nineteen 


undevicesimus 


20 viginti 


twenty 


( vicesimus ) 
1 vigesimus ) 


21 ^ > twenty-one 
unus et viginti ) 


( vicesimus primus \ 
\ unus et vigesimus ) 


22 viginti duo 
duo et viginti 


y tioenty-two 


,■ vicesimus alter \ 
j alter et vicesimus > 
( duo et vicesimus ) 


28 duodetriginta 


twenty-eight 


duodetricesimus 


tindetriginta ) 
viginti novem > 


tiventy-nine 


undetricesimus 



NUMERALS. 



65 



with examples of the higher numbers, are given in the 
following table, together with the Roman signs for them. 



DISTRIBUTIVES 


ADVERBS. 


ROMAN SIGNS. 


singuli 


semel 


I. 


bini 


bis 


II. 


terni 


ter 


III. 


quaterni 


quater 


IIII or IV. 


quini 


quinquies 


V. 


seni 


sexies 


VI. 


septeni 


septies 


VII. 


octoni 


octies 


VIII. 


noveni 


novies 


Villi or IX. 


deni 


decies 


X. 


undeni 


undecies 


XI. 


duodeni 


duodecies 


XII. 


terni deni 


ter decies 


XIII. 


quaterni deni 


quater decies 


XIIII or XIV. 


quini deni 


( quinquies decies \ 
{ quindecies ) 


XV. 


seni deni 


( sexies decies ) 
( sedecies 1 


XVI. 


septeni deni 


septies decies 


XVII. 


( duodeviceni ) 
( octoni deni j 


octies decies 


XVIII. 


( undeviceni ) 
(noveni deni j 


novies decies 


XVIIII or XIX. 


viceni 


vicies 


XX. 


viceni singuli 


( vicies semel ) 
( semel et vicies ) 


XXI. 


viceni bini 


( vicies bis ) 
( bis et vicies ) 


XXII. 


duodetriceni 


duodetricies 


XXVIII. 


undetriceni 


undetricies 


XXVIIIIorXXIX. 



66 



INFLECTION. 



CARDINALS. 



ORDINALS. 



30 triginta 



40 

50 
60 
70 
80 
90 

99 

100 
101 

102 

200 
300 

400 

500 

600 

700 

800 

900 

1,000 

2,000 

100,000 

1,000,000 

2,000,000 



3,000,000 



thirty 
forty 

fifty 

sixty 
seventy 
eighty 
ninety 

ninety-nine 

one hundred 
hundred and < 

one I 

hundred and J 

two I 

two hundred 
three hundred, 

four hundred 
five hundred 
six hundred 
seven hundred 
eight hundred 
nine hundred 
one thousand 
two thousand 
one hundred 
thousand 
decies centena (or 

centum) milia one million 
vicies centena (or 

centum) milia two million 
tricies centum 
milia three million 



( tricesimus ) 
( trigesimus ) 



quadraginta 
qulnquaginta 
sexaginta 
septuaginta 
octoginta 
nonaginta 
undecentum ) 
(nonaginta no- V 

vem) ) 

centum 

centum et unus ) 
centum unus ) 
centum et duo ) 
centum duo j 
ducenti, -ae, -a 
trecenti, -ae, -a 
quadringenti, 

-ae, -a 
quingenti, -ae, -a 
sescenti, -ae, -a 
septingenti, -ae, -a 
octingenti, -ae, -a 
nongentl, -ae, -a 
mille 
duo milia 
centum milia 



tricesimus 

trigesimus 

quadragesimus 

quinquagesimus 

sexagesimus 

septuagesimus 

octogesimus 

nonagesinius 

undecentesimus 

centesimus 
centesimus et unus 
centesimus unus 
centesimus et alter 
. centesimus alter 
ducentesimus 
trecentesimus 

quadringentesimus 

quingentesimus 

sescentesimus 

septingentesimus 

octingentesimus 

nongentesimus 

millesimus 

bis millesimus 

centies millesimus 

decies centies mil- 
lesimus 

vicies centies mil- 
lesimus 

tricies centies mil- 
lesimus 





NUMERALS. 


DISTRIBUTIVES 


!. ADVERBS. 


ROMAN SIGNS. 


triceni 


tricies 


XXX. 


quadrageni 


quadragies 


XXXX or XL. 


quinquageni 


quinquagies 


L. 


sexageni 


sexagies 


LX. 


septuageni 


septuagies 


LXX. 


octogeni 


octogies 


LXXX. 


nonageni 


nonagies 


LXXXX or XC. 


undecenteni 


undecenties 


IC. 


centeni 


centies 


C. 


centeni singul 


. ( centies et semel ) 
( centies semel ) 


CI. 


centeni bini 


f centies et bis ) 
( centies bis ) 


CIL 






duceni 


ducenties 


CC. 


treeeni 


trecenties 


ccc. 


quadringeni 


quadringenties 


CCCC or CD. 


quingeni 


quingenties 


D or 10- 


sesceni 


sescenties 


DC or IOC. 


septingeni 


septingenties 


DCC or IOCC. 


octingenl 


octingenties 


DCCC or IOCCC. 


nongeni 


nongenties 


DCCCCorlOCCCG 


singula milia 


millies 


M or CIO. 


bina milia 


bis millies 


MM or CIOCIO- 


centena milia 


centies milies 


CCCIOOO. 



67 



decies centies milies CCCCIOOOO- 



decies centena 

milia 
vicies centena 

milia vicies centies milies CCCCI0000CCCCI0000. 

tricies centena milia 

tricies centies milies CCCCIOOOOCCCCIOOOOCCCCIOOOO. 



68 INFLECTION. 

159. The cardinals from quattuor to centum, also rnille, 
are indeclinable. The cardinals for hundreds, and the 
distributives, are declined like the plural of bonus. The 
ordinals are declined like bonus in both numbers. Unus, 
duo, tres, and milia (pi.) are also declined. 

160. Unus has been declined in 146. Tres and milia 
are declined like the plural of regular adjectives of the 
third declension. Duo is thus declined : — 





M. 


F. 


N. 


N. & V. 


duo 


duae 


duo 


G. 


duSrum 


duarum 


du5rum 


D. & Ab. 


duobus 


duabus 


duobus 


Ac. 


duos or duo 


duas 


duo 



a. The shorter form of the genitive, duum, is used especially 
in compounds like duumviri, and when joined with milium. 

b. Like duo is declined ambo, both, except that the final o is 
long. They are remnants of the dual number. (See 86, a.) 

161. The plural of unus is used with nouns which have 
no singular or a different meaning in the singular; as, 
unae nuptiae, one wedding ; una castra, one camp. To 
denote more than one with such nouns the distributives * 
are used ; as, bina castra, two camps. 

a. The plural of unus is also used with nouns denoting seve- 
ral things considered as one whole ; as, una vestimenta, one suit 
of clothes ; and in the meaning " alone " or " the same ; " as, uni 
Ubii, the Ubii alone ; unis moribus vivere, to live according to 
the same habits (as some one else). 

b. The numbers from twelve to nineteen are sometimes ex- 
pressed by two numbers, the greater of which usually precedes 
with et ; as, decern et tres, etc. ; or without et ; as, decern novem. 

c. From twenty to one hundred the smaller number with et 
is put first, or the larger number without et ; as, unus et viginti 
or viginti unus. Ordinals, however, omit et when the smaller 
number precedes and sometimes take it when the larger pre- 

* Trlnl is used for terra in such cases. 



NUMERALS. 69 

cedes ; as, tertius decimus, and decimus tertius or decimus et ter- 
tius. The adverbs may also take et when the larger number 
precedes ; as, vicies et ter as well as ter et vicies and vicies ter. 

d. Instead of primus and secundus, prior and alter are used 
when only two are spoken of. Alter is otherwise often used for 
secundus ; and, in the compound numbers, units and alter are 
often used for primus and secundus ; as, unus et vicesimus, 
alter et trigesimus. 

e. Sixty-eight, sixty-nine, and ninety-eight, are expressed by 
addition only ; the other eights and nines generally by subtrac- 
tion only, except that twenty-eight, twenty-nine, and thirty-nine, 
as well as some of the distributives and adverbs, have both 
forms. Among ordinals seventy-eight, seventy-nine, eighty- 
eight, and eighty-nine have only the forms by addition. 

f. Above one hundred the larger number precedes with or 
without et ; as, centum et unus or centum unus. Et is never used 
more than once, and then after the first number ; as, trecenfi et 
sexaginta sex. Numeral adverbs are to be added together 
when the larger precedes, but multiplied together when the 
smaller precedes. Thus, while centies decies means a hundred 
and ten times, decies centies means ten times p. hundred times, 
*. e., a thousand times. 

g. Mille is generally used as an adjective, but in the nomina- 
tive and accusative it also occurs as a noun ; milia is a noun, 
and may be used with a genitive. Thus : mille homines and 
duo milia hominum. 

h. Thousands are expressed by prefixing the cardinal num- 
bers to milia, millions by further prefixing a numeral adverb. 
Thus: decern milia = 10,000. 

ducenta milia = 200,000. 

tricies centum milia = 3,000,000 (i. e., thirty times 
100,000). 
i. The year and the hour are expressed by ordinals. Thus : 
hora septimd, at the seventh hour ; annus guingentesimus tri- 
cesimus primus, the year five hundred and thirty-one. 

k. Fractions are expressed by ordinals with pars, a part. 
Thus, J = tertia pars. One half is generally, however, expressed 



70 INFLECTION. 

by dimidia pars, or dimidium and a genitive. Also, fractions 
whose numerator is one less than the denominator are ex- 
pressed by cardinals with partes. Thus : § = duae partes, § = 
tres partes, etc. 

Note. For various derivative adjectives expressing- numerical relations 
see 286. 

162. (1.) The Romans represented numbers by letters ; 
as,I=l,V=5,X=10. 

Note. In several cases these letters grew out of early forms discarded 
from the alphabet as we have it. Thus, the old aspirates, ©> ©> V, were 
used for 100, 1000, and 50 respectively, and developed into C, CD, and ±. 
Then five hundred (half one thousand) was denoted by I). For these were 
then substituted C, M, L, D; but for M and D, CIO and ID are often 
written. 

(2.) When a letter is repeated, the number is equal to 
the value of the letter multiplied by the number of times 
it occurs. Thus, II = 2 x 1, or 2 ; XXX = 10x3, or 30 ; 
CCCC = 100 x 4, or 400. V and L are not thus repeated. 
(3.) When a letter of smaller value is placed before 
one of larger value, its value is subtracted from the larger 
value ; placed after, it is added to the larger value ; as : — 

IV four, V five, VI six. 

IX nine, X ten, XI eleven. 

XL forty, L fifty, LX sixty. 

XC ninety, C hundred, CX hundred and ten. 

a. Annexing to 10 multiplies by ten. Thus : — 

10 = 500 ; 100 = 5,000 ; 1000 = 50,000. 

b. Prefixing C and annexing to CIO also multiplies by ten. 
Thus : — 

CIO = 1000; CCIOO = 10,000 ; CCCI000 = 100,000. 

c. Hundreds of thousands are represented by repeating 
CCCIOOO. Thus : — 

CCCIOOOCCCIOOOCCCIOOO = 300,000. 

d. Sometimes thousands are expressed by a straight line over 
the numeral letters. Thus : — 

X = 10,000; XL = 40,000. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 71 

Comparison of Adjectives (Comparatio). 

163. (1.) The comparison of an adjective is the change 
of its form to express its quality in different degrees. 

(2.) There are three degrees of comparison, the posi- 
tive (gradus positivus), the comparative (gradus com- 
paratwus), and the superlative (gradus superlcitwus). 

164. (1.) The positive simply denotes a quality, with- 
out reference to other degrees of the same quality; as, 
altus, high ; m'Uis, mild. 

(2.) The comparative denotes that a quality exists in 
one of two instances to a greater degree than in the other ; 
as, altior, higher ; mitior, milder. 

(3.) The superlative denotes that a quality exists in 
one of several (or all possible) instances to a greater de- 
gree than in any other ; as, altissimus, highest ; mitissi- 
mus, mildest. 

a. The comparative is also used elliptically where we use 
"too" or "rather;" as, vivit liberius, he lives too freely or 
rather freely. 

b. The superlative often indicates a high degree of a quality 
without direct comparison with other objects ; as, amicus caris- 
simus, a very dear friend. 

c. The superlative with quam denotes that the quality exists 
in the highest possible degree ; as, quam maximus, as great as 
possible. 

d. Degrees of a quality less than the positive may be denoted 
by minus, less, and minime, least, prefixed to the positive, as in 
English. 

165. The comparative is formed by adding -ior (m. and 
f.), -ius (n.), to the stem of an adjective; in the case of 
the vowel stems the stem vowel is dropped. The super- 
lative is formed by adding in the same way -issimus, 
-issima, -issimum. Thus : — 



72 



INFLECTION. 



Positive 

altus 
mltis 
felix 



Stem 

alto- 
miti- 
felic- 



Comparative 

altior 

mitior 

felicior 



Superlative 

altissimus 

mltissimus 

fellcissimus 



facilis, easy 
difficilis, hard 
gracilis, slender 
humilis, low 
similis, like 
dissimilis, unlike 



facillimus 

difficillimus 

gracillimus 

humillimus 

simillimus 

dissimillinms 



Irregular Comparison. 

166. Adjectives in -eu form the comparative regularly, 
but add -rimus to the positive to form the superlative. 
Thus : — 

acer acri- acrior acerrimus 

a. So vetus has as superlative veterrimus. 

167. Six adjectives in -lis form their superlative by 
adding -limus to the stem without the stem vowel. 
Thus : — 

facilior 
difficilior 
gracilior 
humilior 
similior 
dissimilior 
a. Imbecillus (-is) has also sometimes imbecillimus. 

168. (1.) Five adjectives in -ficus (cf. facio) derive 
their comparatives and superlatives from supposed forms 
in -ficens. Thus : — 

beneficus, kind beneficentior benencentissimus 

a. So horiorificus, honorable, inagnificus, splendid, munificus, 
liberal, and maleficus, hurtful, except that maleficus has no 
comparative. 

(2.) So adjectives in -dicens (from dlco) and -volens 
(from void*), though compared regularly, have more com- 
monly a positive form in -dicus and -volus. Thus : — 
maledicus (maledi- 

cens), slanderous maledicentior maledicentissimus 
benevolus (benevo- 

lens), well-wishing benevolentior benevolentissimus 



DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 



73 



169. The following adjectives show various irregulari- 
ties of comparison : — 



bonus, good 


melior 


optimus 


malus, bad 


peior 


pessimus 


magnus, great 


maior 


maximus 


parvus, small 


minor 


minimus 


multus, much 


plus* 


plurimus 


dexter, right, skillful 


dexterior 


dextimus 


nequam, worthless 


nequior 


nequissimus 


frugi, worthy 


frugalior 


frugalissimus 



Note. The superlative suffix mo- seems to have been the earliest. 
This was then combined with the suffix to-, so- (see 255), making 
-tumus, -sumus (-timus, -simus), which are found assimilated as 
-limus, -rimus. (See above, 166, 167). The common ending- -issimus 
either grew from adding 1 -simus to comparatives, or was formed in some 
way after the pattern of the earlier ending -mus. See Iwan Miiller, Hand- 
buck der Altertumswiss., ii., B., p. 220. 

Defective Comparison. 
170. (1.) The following adjectives are formed from 
stems of prepositions, and are seldom or never used in 
the positive : — 

eis, citra [citerj citerior, hither citimus 

de deterior, worse deterrimus 

in, intra interior, inner intimus 

prae, pro prior, former primus 

prope propior, nearer proximus 

ultra [ulter] ulterior, farther ultimus 

(2.) Four others are used, in many forms of the posi- 
tives, though not classical in the nominative singular 
masculine ; namely : — 



ex, extra [exterus] (exter) 
infra [inferus] (infer) 

post [posterus] 

super, supra [superus] 



exterior, outer 
inferior, inner 
posterior, hinder 
superior, upper 



( extremus 
I extimus 
< infimus 
/ imus 
( postremus 
( postumus 
( supremus 
( summus 



* Only neuter in singular. (See 153.) 



74 INFLECTION. 

(3.) The following two have no positive : — 
5cior, swifter ocissimus 

potior, preferable potissimus 

171. The following adjectives have no comparative : — 
bellus, fine. invitus, unwilling. 
caesius, bluish gray. novos, new. 

falsus, false. pius, filial. 

fidus, faithful. sacer, sacred. 

inclutus, renowned. vafer, crafty. 

invictus, invincible. vetus, old. 

172. (1.) The following have no superlative : — 
adidescens, young. promts, bending forward. 
agrestis, rustic. propinquus, near. 
alacer, lively. salutdris, salutary. 
caecus, blind. satur, full. 
diuturnus, lasting. segnis, slow. 

exilis, thin. silvestris, woody. 

Infinities, unlimited. sinister, left. 

ingens, great. supinus, lying on the back. 

ieiunus, fasting. surdus, deaf. 

longinquus, distant. tempestivos, seasonable. 

opimus, rich. teres, round. 

proclivis, sloping. vicinus, neighboring. 

With many in -alis, -Ilis, -ilis, and -bilis, and a few other less 
common adjectives. 

(2.) Iuvenis, young, compar. iunior, and senex, old, 
compar. senior, have the superlative supplied by minimus 
ndtu and maximus natu, respectively. 

173. The comparative and superlative may also be 
formed by prefixing to the positive the adverbs magis, 
more, and mdxime, most, as in English. Thus : idoneus, 
fit, magis idoneus, mdxime idoneus. 

a. This method of comparison is common with adjectives 
ending in -icus, -idus-, -ulus, -undus, -imus, -inus, -orus, 
-Ivos, -us pure (except -uus), and some others. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 75 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

174. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the first 
and second declension generally by substituting e for the 
stem vowel ; from adjectives of the third declension, and 
occasionally from the others, by adding -ter to the stem, 
before which a and o are weakened to i. Thus : durus, 
dure ; deer, dcriter ; f irmus, fir miter * 

a. The final -e is short in bene, well ; male, ill ; inferne, be- 
low ; superne, above ; and saepe, often. (Cf. 46, a, 2.) 

b. Stems in t- retain, of course, only one t in the adverb ; as, 
prudens, prudenter ; sollers, sollerter. 

Audax has audacter, and less commonly audaciter. 

c. Facilis, easy, has facile f ; difficilis, hard, difficulter ; and 
nequam, worthless, nequiter. 

175. Only the adverbs thus formed from adjectives are 
as a rule compared. The comparative is the neuter ac- 
cusative singular of the comparative of the adjective ; the 
superlative is the superlative of the adjective with e sub- 
stituted for the stem vowel. If the adjective is irregular 
the adverb shows similar irregularity. Thus : — 

dure, hard dtirius dfirissime 

acriter, sharply acrius acerrime 

audacter, boldly audacius audacissime 

So also male, ill peius pessime 

parve, little minus minime 

aperte, openly magis aperte maxime aperte, etc. 

176. A few adverbs thus compared have no adjectives 
in use. Thus : — 

diu, long diutius diutissime 

saepe, often saepius saepissime 

* These adjectives of the second declension generally also have adverbs 
in -e ; as, flrme ; but alius and violentus have only aliter and violenter. 
t Really neuter accusative of the adjective. (Cf. 557, a, note.) 



76 INFLECTION. 

a. Two slightly irregular forms are — 

bene, well (from bonus) melius optime 

magis (comp.), more (from magnus) maxime 

Note. Other adverbs are not compared, and will be treated later. 
(See 187, 292, 293, and 557.) 

PRONOUNS. 

177. Pronouns include the following classes : — 

(1.) Personals (pronomina personalia) : as, ego? I; 
tu, thou ; including the reflexive Qrejlexwuni), sul, of 
himself, etc. 

(2.) Demonstratives (demonstrativa) : as, is, he, 
that ; hie, this. 

(3.) Intensives (intenswa) : as, ipse, self; Idem, the 
same. 

(4.) Relatives (relatwd) : as, qui, who. 

(5.) Interrogatives (inter rogativa) : as, quis, who ? 

(6.) Indefinites (indefinita) : as, aliquis, some one 
or other ; quidam, some (particular) one. 

(7.) Possessives (possesswa) : as, mens, my ; cuius, 
whose ? 

(8.) Patrials (patrialia) : as, nostras, of our coun- 
try. 

Personals. 

178. The personal pronouns are thus declined : — 

Singular. 

Norn, ego, I. tu, thou, you. 

Gen. mel, of me. tui, of thee, you. 

Dat. mini, to me. tibl, to thee, you. 

Ace. me, me. te, thee, you. 

Voc. tu, thou, you. 

Abl. me, with or by me. te. with or by thee, you. 



PRONOUNS. — PERSONALS. — DEMONSTRATIVES. 77 







Plural. 




Nom. 


nos, we. 




vos, ye, you. 


Gen. 


nostrum,* or 


nostri, 


vestrum, or vestri, 




of us. 




of you. 


Dat. 


nobis, to us. 




vobis, to you. 


Ace. 


nos, us. 




vos, you. 


Voc. 






vos, ye, you. 


Abl. 


nobis, with or 


by us. 


v5bis, with or by you. 



179. The reflexive pronoun is the same in both num- 
bers and in all genders. Thus : — 

Nom. 

Gen. sui, of himself, herself, itself, themselves. 
Dat. sibi, to himself, etc. 
Ace. se (sese), himself, etc. 



Voc. 

Abl. se (sese), with or by himself, etc, 

a. The personal pronoun of the third person when not reflex- 
ive is supplied by the demonstratives, is, ea, id, and (more em- 
phatic) hie, haec, hoc, or ille, ilia, illud. (See 180, below.) 

b. All the forms of the personal and reflexive pronouns, ex- 
cept tu and the plural genitives, sometimes add the suffix -met 
for greater emphasis. Thus : egomet, vosmet, semet. 

c. Tu has an emphatic form tute, and in old Latin tete is 
used as more emphatic for te. 

d. Ml is old and poetic for mihi. Mepte and rried for me, 
ted for te, mis for met, and tis for tin, occur in the comic poets. 

Note. The personal and reflexive pronouns, with the intensive ipse, 
are the only pronouns in the strict sense (*. e., words used instead of nouns). 
The possessives and patrials are really adjectives, and the others are used 
as adjectives as well as pronouns. 

Demonstratives. 
180. The demonstrative pronouns are thus declined : — 

* Nostrum and vestrum are mostly confined to the partitive use (see 
Syntax, 354) ; nostri and vestri are used for other relations. 



78 



; 




INFLECTION. 








is, he, that. 








Singular. 






M. 


F. 


N. 


Nom. 


is 


ea 


id 


Gen. 


eius 


eius 


eius 


Dat. 


ei 


ei 


ei 


Ace. 


eum 


earn 


id 


Abl. 


eo 


ea 
Plural. 


e5 


Nom. 


el (ii) 


eae 


ea 


Gen. 


eorum 


earum 


eorum 


D. & A. 


eis (us) 


eis (iis) 


eis (iis) 


Ace. 


eos 


eas 

hie, this. 
Singular. 


ea 


Nom. 


hie 


haec 


hSc 


Gen. 


huius 


huius 


huius 


Dat. 


huic 


huic 


huio 


Ace. 


huuc 


hauo 


hoc 


Abl. 


h5c 


hac 
Plural. 


hoc 


Nom. 


hi 


hae 


haec 


Gen. 


horum 


harum 


horum 


D. & A. 


his 


his 


his 


Ace. 


hos 


has 

iste, this, that. 
Singular. 


haec 


Nom. 


iste 


ista 


istud 


Gen. 


istius 


istius 


istius 


Dat. 


isti 


isti 


isti 


Ace. 


istum 


istam 


istud 


Abl. 


isto 


ista 


isto 





PRONOUNS. 


— DEMONSTRATIVES. 

Plural. 


1\ 


Nom. 


istl 


istae 


ista 


Gen. 


istorum 


istarum 


istorum 


D. & A. 


istis 


istis 


istis 


Ace. 


istos 


istas 

ille, that. 

Singular. 


ista 


Nom. 


ille 


ilia 


illud 


Gen. 


illius 


illius 


illius 


Dat. 


illi 


illi 


illi 


Ace. 


ilium 


illam 


illud 


Abl. 


illo 


ilia 
Plural. 


ills 


Nom. 


ill! 


illae 


ilia 


Gen. 


illorum 


illarum 


illorum 


D. & A. 


mis 


illis 


illis 


Ace. 


illos 


illas 


ma 



a. The old form of ille was ollus, and some cases from that 
form occur. Genitives and datives after the analogy of the 
regular forms in the first and second declensions are also found ; 
as, illae for illius and illi, eae for el, hae for hide, etc. Iibus, 
ibus, occur for els ; and, as fem., eabus. In early Latin are found 
as nominative plural, eeis, ieis, eis, I, heis, his, heisce, hlsce. 

b. The interjection eeee, lo ! is compounded with ille, iste, and 
is in colloquial language ; producing eccillud, eccistam, ecca, 
eccum, eceos, etc. 

c. An intensive suffix -ce is added to various forms of the 
demonstratives, producing forms like huiusce, hance, horunee, 
Mace, istosce, iisce. 

d. When the interrogative ne is attached we have forms like 
hicine, haecine, illaecine, etc. 

e. Sometimes the e from -ce is dropped, producing from iste 
the following forms : — 



80 INFLECTION. 

Singular. Plural. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

N. istic istaec istic or istuc istaec 

Ac. istunc istano istoc or istuc istaec 

Ab. ist5c istac istoc 

Similar forms occur for ille ; and horunc, Jmrunc from Inc. 

f. The genitive modi is combined with the genitive of the 
demonstratives to indicate of this or that kind. Thus : huius- 
modl or huiuscemodi, of this kind ; eiusmodi, of such a kind, 
that kind, etc. 

Note. It will be seen that ille and iste are alike in their declensions, 
that lac differs from them only in having the C of the suffix -ce in certain 
forms, and that is differs only in the nominative singular masculine and 
neuter, and the accusative singular neuter. 

Uses of the Demonstratives. 

181. (1.) Hie, this, is used to denote that which is near 
the speaker in thought, space, or time, or in a written or 
spoken sentence, and is sometimes called the demonstra- 
tive of the first person. 

(2.) Ille, that, is used to denote that which is far from 
the speaker, and is sometimes called the demonstrative of 
the third person. 

(3.) Iste, this, that, denotes that which is too far from 
the speaker for hie and too near for ille, often marking 
that which is near, or, which concerns, the person addressed. 
It is therefore sometimes called the demonstrative of the 
second person. It frequently refers to a point under dis- 
cussion between two persons, or to an opponent in argu- 
ment, especially in law matters, and therefore sometimes 
implies contempt. 

(4.) When hie and ille are used to refer to two things 
in the same passage, hie more commonly refers to the 
thing last mentioned, and ille to the one first mentioned ; 
but if the one first mentioned is more important (i. e., 
nearer the thought of the speaker), hie refers to that, 
and ille refers to the other. 



PRONOUNS. 



DEMONSTRATIVES. — INTENSIVES. 



81 



(5.) The following examples will make these distinc- 
tions clearer : — 

Dlutius in hac vita esse non possum, I cannot stay longer in 
this life. 

Haec nostra studia ; ista tua studia, these (are) our pur- 
suits, those your pursuits. 

Ego enim istiic ipsum vereor ne malum sit, non died car ere 
sensu sed carendum esse, for I am afraid that this very thing is 
an evil ; I do not mean the being without sensation itself but 
the necessity of being so (Cic, Tusc, i., 12, 26). 

a. Q. Catulus, non antiquo illo more, sed hoc nostro eru- 
dltus, Quintus Catulus trained not in that old fashioned style, 
but in this of ours. 

Ignavia corpus hebetat, labor firmat ; ilia maturat senectu- 
tem, hie longam adulescentiam reddit, inactivity dulls the phy- 
sical forces, work strengthens them ; the one hastens old age, the 
other prolongs youth. 

Melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria ; haec in tua, 
ilia in deorum manu est, certain peace is better than victory 
hoped for ; the peace is in your hands, the victory in the hands 
of the gods. 

For the special uses of the demonstratives see Syntax, 450. 







Intensives. 






182. The intensive 


pronouns are 


thus declined : — 






ipse, self. 










Singular. 








M. 


F. 




N. 


N. & V. 


ipse 


ipsa 




ipsum 


Gen. 


ipsius 


ipsius 




ipsius 


Dat. 


ipsi 


ipsi 




ipsi 


Ace. 


ipsum 


ipsam 




ipsum 


Abl. 


ips5 


ipsa 
Plural. 




ipso 


N.& V. 


ipsi 


ipsae 




ipsa 


Gen. 


ipsorum 


ipsarum 


ipsSrum 


D. & A. 


ipsis 


ipsis 




ipsis 


Ace. 


ipsos 


ipsas 




ipsa 



82 



I 




INFLECTION. 






idem, the same. 








Singular. 




N. & V. 


idem 


eadem 


idem 


Gen. 


eiusdem 


eiusdem 


eiusdem 


Dat. 


eidem 


eidem 


eidem 


Ace. 


eundem 


eandem 


idem 


Abl. 


eodem 


eadem 
Plural. 


eodem 


N. & V. 


eidem (iidem) eaedem 


eadem 


Gen. 


eorundem 


earundem 


eorundem 


D. & A. 


elsdem 


elsdem 


elsdem 




(iisdem) 


(iisdem) 


(iisdem) 


Ace. 


eosdem 


easdem 


eadem 



a. Isdem and idem occur as nominative plural masculine, 
and other rare forms are occasionally met. See Buecheler's 
Grundriss. 

Note. It will be seen that ipse is declined like iste and ille except in 
the nominative and accusative singular neuter, and in having a vocative. 
Idem is formed from is with the demonstrative suffix -dem. 



Relatives, Interrogatives, and Indefinites. 

183. The relative qui, who, the interrogative quis {qui), 
who, and the indefinite quis (qui), any one, are formed 
from the same stem, and most of their forms are the 
same. The indefinite quis occurs chiefly with the particles 
si, nisi, ne, num ; otherwise the compound aliquis takes 
its place. 

184. The relative qui, the interrogative quis, and the 
indefinite aliquis are thus declined : — 

qui, who. quis, who ? 

Singular. 



Nom. 
Gen. 


M. 
qui 
cuius 


F. 
quae 
cuius 


N. 
quod 
cuius 


M. 
quis (qui) 
cuius 


F. 
quae 
cuius 


N. 
quid (quod) 
cuius 


Dat. 


cui 


cui 


cui 


cui 


cui 


cui 


Ace. 


quem 


quam 


quod 


quem 


quam 


quid (quod) 



Ahl. quo (qui) qua (qui) quo (qui) qud (qui) qua (qui) quo (qui) 



RELATIVES, INTERROGATIVES, AND INDEFINITES. 83 

Plural. 





M. 


F. 


N. 


Nom. 


qui 


quae 


quae 


Gen. 


quorum 


quarum 


quorum 


D.&A. 


quibus 


quibus 


quibus 


Ace 


quos 


quas 


quae 


a. The indefinite quis is 


declined jus! 


b like the inter 



aliquis, any, some. 
Singular. 

M. F. 



N. 



Nom. 
Gen. 


aliquis (aliqui) aliqua 
alicuius alicuius 


aliquid (aliquod) 
alicuius 


Dat. 


alicui 


alicui 


alicui 


Ace. 
Abl. 


aliquem 
aliquo 


aliquam 
aliqua 

Plural. 


aliquid (aliquod) 
aliquo 


Nom. 
Gen. 
D.&A. 
Ace. 


aliqui 
aliquorum 
aliquibus 
aliqu5s 


aliquae 
aliquarum 
aliquibus 
aliquas 


aliqua 
aliquorum 
aliquibus 
aliqua 



b. In the interrogative and indefinite pronouns the forms quis, 
quid, aliquis, aliquid, are used substantively, the forms qui, 
quod, aliqui, aliquod, adjectively. 

c. The ablative form qiii is also occasionally found as a plural. 
Its chief use is as an ablative of manner (see 410), meaning 
" how ? " or combined with cum ; as, quicum, with whom. 

d. Old forms for the dative and ablative plural are queis and 
quis. 

e. Quis is sometimes found as a feminine in the comic writers, 
and even as a neuter. So the compounds — quisque, each ; quis- 
nam, who in the world ; and quisquam, any one, are found as 
feminines. 

/. When two only are referred to, uter (see 145 and 146), 



84 



INFLECTION. 



not quis, is the interrogative used. So uterque means " each " 
(of two), quisque, " each " (of several). 

Note. It will be noticed that the above three pronouns have forms with 
a- stems, with O- stems, and with i- stems. 

185. There are two compound relative pronouns, qui- 
cumque and quisquis, meaning " whoever." Quicumque 
is declined like qui. Quisquis is used only in certain 
forms, as follows : — 



N. 

quidquid (quicquid) 
quidquid (quicquid) 
qu5quo 





Singular. 


M. 


F. 


Nom. quisquis 


(quisquis) 


Ace. quemquem 






Abl. quoquo 


quaqua 



Plural. 

Nom. quiqui 

Dat. quibusquibus 

a. Modi is joined to quisquis, as to the demonstratives, but 
in an old form of the genitive, cuicuimodi, of whatever kind. 

b. Indefinite interrogates are formed from quis by various 
particles ; as, ecquis, numquis, any one ? Quisnam, who, pray ? 
is emphatic for quis. These words are common only in certain 
cases, and are often written as two words. The feminine nomi- 
native singular and neuter nominative and accusative plural 
generally end in qua, not quae. 

c. So various quasi-compounds are formed from the indefinite 
quis ; as, stquis, nequis, often written separately ; quilibet, 
quivis, quispiam, quisquam, qutdam, with quisque, each, and 
unusquisque, each and all. They are all declined like quis, but 
quisquam is not used in the feminine nor in the plural, and 
quispiam has in the plural only the feminine nominative quae- 
piam. A form unumquidquid occurs in Plautus and Lucretius. 

d. The order of the indefinite pronouns from less to greater 
definiteness is as follows : — 



PRONOUNS. — POSSESSIVES. 85 

quisquam, any one whatever. 

quilibet, ) 

y any you please. 

quwis, ) J J r 

quis, any. 

aliquis, some one or other, any one. 

quispiam, some one. 

quidam, some particular one. 

Note. Quo- was the old form of spelling- for cu- in these pronouns 
(cf. 59, c), so that we find in inscriptions and in Plautus and Terence quoius 
(originally trissyl.), and then quoius (dissyl.), for cuius, quoi for cui, quoivis 
for cuivis, etc. 

For the use of indefinite pronouns, see Syntax, 454 ff. 

POSSESSIVES. 

186. (1.) Possessives are formed from the personal 
pronouns (including the reflexive), and from the inter- 
rogative (and relative). Thus: mens, my; tuus, thy, 
your ; suus, his, hers, etc. ; noster, our ; vester, your ; 
cuius (relative and interrogative), whose. 

(2.) They are declined regularly, meus, mea, meum, 
etc. ; noster, nostra, nostrum, etc. : except that the voca- 
tive singular masculine of mens is generally mi (other- 
wise meus like nominative) ; the others have no vocative. 

a. Cuius is used only in a few forms, as follows : — 

Sing. Plural. 

M. f. N. F. 

Nom. cuius cuia cuium cuiae 

Ace. cuium cuiam cuias 

Abl. cuia ■ 

h. The suffixes -met and (chiefly in the ablative) -pte are 
sometimes annexed to the possessives to give them emphasis. 
Thus : tulsmet, meapte, etc. 

Note. Old forms of the genitive plural of the possessive pronouns in 
■um for -orum occur in comedy ; as, meum, vostrum. Sovos, sova, sovom, 
are found in inscriptions, for suus, sua, suum. The older spellings of cuius, 
-a, -urn, were quoius, -a, -um (originally trissyl.), quoius, -a, -urn (dissyl.) 
(cf. 185, note). 



80 



INFLECTION. 



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PRONOUNS. — PATRIALS. — VERBS. 87 



Patrials. 

188. The patrials are formed from the stems of the 
possessives noster and cuius, and indicate the country 
to which one belongs. Thus : nostras, of our country ; 
cuias, of what country ? 

a. They are declined regularly like adjectives of one ending : 
nostras, nostratis, etc., but are used only in certain forms, as 
follows : — 

Singular. Plural. 

N. nostras ciiias (quoias) nostrates nostratia cuiates (m.) 

G- nostratis cuiatis 

Ac cuiatem (m.) 

Ab. nostratibus 

Nostratis and cuiatis also occur as nominatives. 



Note. A form vestras, of your country, is given by Priscian and other 
ancient grammarians. 

VERBS. 

189. Verbs are either transitive (transitwa) or in- 
transitive (intransitiva).* 

190. A transitive verb marks an action as directly 
applied to an object ; as, videt leonem, he sees the lion. 

191. An intransitive verb denotes a state or marks 
an action as not directly applied to any object ; f as, sto, 
I stand ; dormit, he is sleeping ; veniunt, they come. 

192. To verbs belong voice (genus%), mood (modus), 
tense (tempus), person (persona), and number (nu- 
merus). 

* Scientifically, we should not speak of verbs themselves as transitive or 
intransitive, but of transitive and intransitive uses of a verb. 

t An intransitive verb is sometimes accompanied by an apparent object, 
which is, however, really an adverbial modifier ; as, " I slept (for) three 
hours." 

% So called from a false analogy with gender in nouns. 



88 INFLECTION. 

Voice. 

193. (1.) Voice is distinguished as active (actwuni) 
or passive Qpasswurn). 

(2.) The active voice represents the subject as acting. 
Thus : Caesar Gallos vicit, Caesar conquered the Gauls. 

(3.) The passive voice represents the subject as acted 
upon. Thus : Galli a Caesare victi sunt, the Gauls 
were conquered by Caesar. 

a. In some languages there is also a special form to represent 
the subject as acting upon itself. This is called a middle voice. 
The Latin passive seems to have been at first of this kind, and 
a few instances of the use survived in classical times. Thus : 
Androgel galeam clipelque Insigne decorum induitur, he puts 
on the helmet of Androgens and his beautifully ornamented 
shield (Verg., Ae., h\, 392). 

b. The place of the middle voice is generally supplied, how- 
ever, by the active with a reflexive pronoun. Thus : pomis se 
arbos induit, the tree clothes itself with fruit (see Verg., G., iv., 
143) ; quocumque te animo et cogitatione converteris (future 
perfect), whithersoever you turn in mind and thought (Cic, de 
Dr., i., 2, 6). 

194. Intransitive verbs have as such only the active 
voice. In Latin, however, they may be used impersonally 
in the passive. (See 318, 3, and 387.) 

195. Some verbs, having the form of the passive, have 
the meaning of the active. They are called deponents 
(deponentia)* Thus : sequor, I follow; morior, I die. 

a. The deponents are really remnants of the middle voice, as 
may be seen by the etymological meaning of many of them ; as, 
recordor, I remind myself (hence "remember"). 

196. Four verbs have the active form in the tenses 
from the present stem, and the passive form in their other 

* From depono, lay aside, because they have laid aside the active form 
and the passive meaning. 



VOICE. — MOOD. 89 

parts, but all with active meaning. They are called semi- 
deponents (semi-dej)onentia). 

a. They are : audeo, dare ; fido, trust (with its compounds) ; 
gaudeo, am glad ; and soled, am wont. 

Mood. 

197. There are three moods : the indicative (indica- 
twus~), the subjunctive (subiunctwus), and the impera- 
tive (imperativus). 

Note. The infinitive is also often reckoned among the moods, but it is 
really a verbal noun, and according- to the best usage at present is treated 
with the other noun parts of the verb. (See 202 and 203.) 

198. (1.) The indicative is used to speak of things as 
they are, to assert, deny, or question a fact. Thus : venio, 
I come ; audlsne, do you hear ? 

(2.) The subjunctive is used to speak of things as 
they seem in the mind, to represent ideas or notions. Thus 
the subjunctive expresses a purpose, a wish, a supposition, 
etc. Examples are : — 

Pu&rum misit qui diceret, he sent a boy to say. 
Utinam pater adesset, oh, that my father were here. 
Faciat ille si earn roges, he would do it if you should ask him. 

a. The difference between the indicative and the subjunctive 
is perhaps most clearly seen in the expression of a cause. 
Thus : — 
Indicative : Hoc dixit quod verum erat, he said this because it 

was true ; 
Subjunctive : Hoc dixit quod verum esset, he said this because 

(as he thought) it was true.* 

(3.) The imperative is used to express a command or 
exhortation. Thus : haec nuntiate regt vestro, tell this to 
your king ; ama inimicos tuos, love your enemies. 

* The pupil should be cautioned against supposing that the subjunctive 
implies that a thing is not a fact. It expresses only as an idea a thing 
which also may be a fact or may not. 



90 INFLECTION. 

Tense. 

199. There are six tenses: the peesent (praeshis'), 
impekfect (imperfectum), future (futuruni), perfect 
(perfecturri)) pluperfect {plusquamperfectimi), and 
future perfect (futurum exacturri). 

a. The Latin tenses correspond in general to the English 
tenses of the same names, but are used more strictly. It should 
be noticed also that the Latin imperfect is mostly confined to the 
progressive sense (was doing, having, etc.), while the Latin per- 
fect serves generally for the English imperfect as well as per- 
fect. 

b. When the Latin perfect corresponds to the English perfect 
it is called the perfect definite or present perfect ; when 
it corresponds to the English imperfect it is called the histori- 
cal PERFECT. 

200. The tenses are divided into — 

(1.) Primary or principal tenses : present, perfect 
definite, and the two futures. 

(2.) Secondary or historical tenses : imperfect, his- 
torical perfect, and pluperfect. 

a. Only the indicative has all six tenses ; the subjunctive has 
no future ; the imperative has only the present and the future, 
the latter expressing the command more gently. 

Number and Person. 

201. There are two numbers, singular and plural, 
as in nouns, and three PERSONS, the first denoting the 
speaker, the SECOND denoting the person spoken to, and 
the third denoting the person or thing spoken of. 

a. The imperative has in the present only the second person, 
in the future the second and third persons. 

Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 

202. (1.) The three moods with their various tenses, 



VERB. — NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS. 91 

numbers, and persons, form what is called the finite 
verb (verbumfmitum), 

(2.) The verb has also three noun forms and two ad- 
jective forms, as follows : — 

a. Noun forms : Infinitive (infinifivus). 

Gerund (gerundium). 
Supine (supinum). 

b. Adjective forms : Participle (participium). 

Gerundive (gerundlvum) . 

Note. These five parts are sometimes classed together as the verbum 
infinitum. 

203. (1.) The infinitive is chiefly used as a neuter 
noun in the nominative or accusative singular. Thus : — 

HumJanum est errare, to err is human. 

In anirrio habed Romam ire, I intend to go to Rome. 

(2.) The infinitive is also used in certain special con- 
structions (see 530 ff.), and has three tenses, present, per- 
fect, and future. Thus : — 

Pres. dicere, to say. 

Perf. dixisse, to have said. 

Fut. dicturus esse, to be on the point of saying. 

204. The gerund is a noun of the second declension 
(stem ending in -ndo-), used only in the oblique cases of 
the singular. The infinitive supplies its nominative. 
Thus: — 

Venandi causa, for the sake of hunting ; fessus venando, 
weary with hunting. 

But : salubre est venari, hunting is healthful. 

205. The supine is a noun of the fourth declension 
(stem ending in -tu-) used only in the accusative and ab- 
lative singular. Thus : — 

Venid rogatum, I come to ask (for asking). 
Difficile intellectu, hard to understand (in the understand- 
ing of it). 

For the syntax of the supine see 553 ff. 



92 INFLECTION. 

206. There are three participles ; the present ac- 
tive, the future active, and the perfect passive. 
Thus : — 

Pres. Act. dlcens, saying. 

Fut. Act. dicturus, on the point of saying. 

Perf. Pass, dictus, said (having been said). 

a. The perfect participle of deponent verbs generally has an 
active meaning ; as, seciltus, having followed. So also the per- 
fect participle of the following four verbs : — 

ceno, dine ; cenatus, having dined. 

iuro, swear ; lurdtus, having sworn. 

poto, drink ; potus, having drunk. 

prandeo, breakfast ; pransus, having breakfasted. 

207. (1.) The gerundive is an adjective of the first 
and second declension (having the same stem as the ge- 
rund). Thus : amandus, docendus. 

(2.) Used to agree with a subject in the nominative or 
accusative, it denotes necessity or obligation. Thus : — 

Docendus est puer, the boy must be taught. 

Vir venerandus, a man to be revered. 

Dixit id faciendum esse, he said it must be done. 

(3.) In other situations the idea of obligation is more 
hidden. Thus : — 

Ad pacem petendam venit, he came to ask for peace (i. e. f 
with regard to the peace to be asked for). 

TJrbis condendae consilhim, the design of founding a city. 

a. In late Latin the gerundive became a future passive 
participle. Faeiendus would then mean merely " on the point 
of being done." 

Conjugation. 
Tense-Stems. 

208. Three special stems — the present stem, the 
perfect stem, and the perfect participle stem — are 
distinguished in the verb. 



CONJUGATION. — TENSE-STEMS. 93 

209. From the peesent stem are formed in both 
voices the present, imperfect, and future in all the moods ; 
also the present infinitive, the present participle, and the 
gerund and gerundive. 

210. From the perfect stem are formed, in the active 
voice only, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect 
tenses, and the perfect infinitive. 

211. From the perfect participle stem is formed 
the perfect participle passive, which with the parts of 
esse, to be, forms in the passive voice those tenses which 
in the active are formed from the perfect stem. 

a. The supine has a (noun) stem of its own, and the future 
participle has a derivative (adjective) stem. The future infinitive 
active is formed by the future participle with esse. The future 
infinitive passive is formed by the supine with iri (the present 
infinitive passive of Ire, to go).* 

b. The supine and the perfect and future participles, though 
not connected in derivation, have a mechanical similarity of 
basis which helps to fix them in the mind. 

Thus : — 



Perf. Part. 


Supine. 


Fut. Part. 


rectus 


rectum 


Tectums 


casus 


caswm 


casurus 


flexws 


flexwm 


ftexitrus 


monitws 


moiaitum 


moniturus 


amatws 


am&titm 


SLm&turus 



* The parts here mentioned, tog-ether with the perfect participle and the 
tenses formed by it, have been commonly grouped together and derived 
from a so-called supine stem. It has seemed best to give up this wholly 
unscientific point of view, but not to depart further from the traditional 
explanation of the verb forms. The pupil should be warned, however, 
that this explanation is true only of the apparent structure of the verb in 
its developed state as met in literature. Many of the tenses which seem 
to belong to the same stem have in reality very varied origins. For 
instance, the imperfect subjunctive probably does not belong to the present 
stem at all, but grew from the same form as the perfects in -Si. 



94 INFLECTION. 

212. The following table shows the tenses formed from 
each of the stems : — 

PRESENT STEM. 
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

Indicative Pres., Imp., Future. Pres., Imp., Future. 
Subjunctive " " " " 

Imperative « " " " 

Infinitive " " 

Participle " 

Gerund. Gerundive. 

PERFECT STEM. PERF. PART. STEM. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

Indicative Perf., Plup., Fut. Perf. Per/., Plup., Fut. Per/. 

Subjunctive " " 

Infinitive " " 

Participle " 

Future part, with esse = Future Infin. Active. 
Supine " iri = " " Passive. 

Personal Endings. 

213. The finite forms of the verb have the following 

PERSONAL ENDINGS : * — 

(1.) Indicative (except perfect) and Subjunctive. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

Sing. 1st Pers. -m or -r 

2d Pers. -s -ris {shortened -re) 

3d Pers. -t -tur 

Plur. 1st Pers. -mus -mur 

2d Pers. -tis -mini 

3d Pers. -nt -ntur 

* These personal ending's are regarded usually as remnants of the 
personal pronoun forms. But see Brugmann in Handbuch der Altertums- 
wiss., ii., p. 72, § 106. 



PERSONAL ENDINGS. 



CONJUGATION OF SUM. 



95 



(2.) Perfect indicative active.* 

Singular. 

1st Pers. 

2d Pers. -sti 
3d Pers. -t 

(3.) Imperative. 

present. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

Sing. 2d Pers. -re 



Plural. 
-mus 
-stis 
-erunt (shortened -ere) 

FUTURE. 
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

-to -tor 

-to -tor 

-tote 

-nto -ntor 



3d Pers. 
Plur. 2d Pers. -te -mini 

3d Pers. 

214. The endings of the noun and adjective forms 
of the verb are as follows : — 

Infinitives. Participles, 
active. passive. active. passive. 
-ri (-1 in 3d conj.) t -ns (-ntis) 



Pres. -re 

Perf. -isse -tus (-a, -um) esse 

Fut. -turus (-a, -um) esse -turn Iri -turus, -a, -um 



-tus, -a, -um 



Gerundive and Gerund. 
-ndus, -a, -um, etc. 

Supine. 
-turn, -tu. 

215. sum, I am, is^conjugated as follows : — 
Pres. Stem es- Perf. Stem fu- 



Singular. 



Indicative Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Plural. 



sum, I am. sumus, we are. 

es, thou art. estis, you are. 

est, he is. sunt, they are. 

* The apparently different ending's of the perfect indicative are due to 
the mixed origin of that tense, and can he best explained elsewhere, 
t Sometimes -rier (-ier). 



96 



INFLECTION. 



eram, I was. 
eras, thou wast, 
erat, he was. 

er5, I shall be. 
eris, thou wilt be. 
erit, he will be. 

ful, I have been, 
fuistl, thou hast been, 
fuit, he has been. 



IMPERFECT. 

eramus, we were, 
eratis, you were, 
erant, they were. 

FUTURE. 

erimus, we shall be. 
eritis, you will be. 
erunt, they will be. 

PERFECT. 

fuimus, we have been, 
fuistis, you have been, 
fuerunt (-re), they have been. 



PLUPERFECT. 

fueram, I had been. fueramus, we had been, 

fueras, thou hadst been. fueratis, you had been, 

fuerat, he had been. fuerant, they had been. 

FUTURE PERFECT. 

fuerS, I shall have been. fuerirrms, we shall have been, 

fueris, thou wilt have been. fueritis, you will have been, 
fuerit, he will have been. fuerint, they will have been. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

imperfect. 



PRESENT. 


sim 


simus 


sis 


sltis 


sit 


sint 


PERFECT. 


fuerim 


fuerirrms 


fueris 


fueritis 


fuerit 


fuerint 



essem 


essemus 


esses 


essetis 


esset 


essent 


PLUPERFECT. 


fuissem 


fuissemus 


fuisses 


fuissetis 


fuisset 


fuissent 



Imperative Mood. 

PRESENT. FUTURE. 

es, be thou, este, be ye. estd estate 



esto 



sun to 



CONJUGATION OF SUM AND POSSUM. 97 

Infinitives. Participle. 

Pres. esse, to be. 

Perf. fuisse, to have been. 

Fiit. futurus esse or fore, futurus, -a, -urn, on the point 

to be on the point of of being. 

being. 

a. It will be seen that the parts of sum are from two differ- 
ent roots, Ves for the tenses from the present stem, the e dis- 
appearing in various forms, and s between two vowels becoming 
r (see 67) ; and V/w for the other forms. Fueram, fuissem, 
etc., are compounded of both roots. 

b. A present participle sens is seen in the compounds absens 
and praesens. 

e. Old forms are — - 

Present Subj. siem, sies, siet, sient. 

fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant. 

Imperf. Subj. forem, fores, foret, forent. 

Perfect Subj. fuverint. 

Pluperf. Subj. fuvisset. 

Perf. Indie. fuvimus. 

Fut. Indie. escit, escunt.* 

d. Prosum, am profitable, retains the original d of the prepo- 
sition where the simple verb begins with a vowel. Thus : 

prosum, prodes, prodest, etc. 

216. possum, compounded of potis, able, and sum, is 
conjugated as follows : — 

Indicative Mood. 

PRESENT. 

Singular. Plural. 

possum, I can. possumus, we can. 

potes, thou canst. potestis, you can. 

potest, he can. possunt, they can. 

* Really inceptive presents. * 



y» INFLECTION. 

IMPERFECT. 

poteram, I could. poteramus, we could, 

poteras, thou couldst. poteratis, you could, 

poterat, he could. poterant, they could. 

FUTURE. 

poterS, I shall be able. poterimus, we shall be able, 

poteris, thou wilt be able. poteritis, you will be able, 

poterit. he will be able. poterunt. they will be able. 

PERFECT. 

potui, I have been able potuimus, we have been able 

(could). (could), 

potuisti, thou hast been able potuistis. you have been able 

(couldst). (could), 

potuit, he has been able potuerunt (-re), they have 

(could). been able (could). 

PLUPERFECT. 

potueram. I had been able, potueramus, we had been 

able, 
potueras, thou hadst been potueratis, you had been able. 

able, 
potuerat, he had been able, potuerant. they had been able. 

FUTURE PERFECT. 

potuero, I shall have been potuerimus, we shall have been 
able. able. 

potueris, thou wilt have been potueritis, you will have been 
able. able. 

potuerit, he will have been potuerint, they will have been 
able. able. 

Subjunctive Mood, 
present. imperfect. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

possim possinms possem possemus 

possis possitis posses possetis 

possit possint posset possent 



THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 99 

PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. 

potuerim potuerimus potuissem potuissemus 

potueris potueritis potuisses potuissetis 

potuerit potuerint potuisset potuissent 

(No Imperative.) 

Infinitives. Participle 

Pres. posse (used only as adjective). 

Perf. potuisse Pres. potens 

a. Rare forms are — 
Pres. Indie, potessunt. 

Pres. Subj. potessim, potessit ; possiem, possies, 

possiet. 
Imper. Subj. potessem. 
Pres. Infin. potesse. 

b. With a passive infinitive are sometimes found — 

potestur, poteratur, possetur. 

The Four Conjugations. 
217. Regular Verbs are divided into four conjugations, 
distinguished by the vowel before the ending (-re) of 
the present infinitive active. Thus : — 

Conjugation. Infinitive. Vowel.* 

I. amare a. 

II. monere e. 

III. regere f e. 

IV. audire I. 

a. The four conjugations are produced by the union of pre- 
cisely the same endings with different kinds of verb-stems, and 
are therefore strictly only one conjugation. Verbs with stems 
in a- belong to the first conjugation, those with stems in e- to 
the second, those with consonant or u- stems to the third, and 
those with stems in I- to the fourth. 

* This vowel is sometimes called the characteristic. 
t See first footnote, page 100. 



100 INFLECTION. 

b. Between the verb-stem and the ending in the tenses from 
the present stem there is a vowel called the thematic vowel. 
This vowel contracts with the stem vowel in the first, second, 
and fourth conjugations, producing a, e, l, respectively. In the 
third conjugation it appears as u (older o) before a nasal (m 
and n), and as e (often weakened to i) before other consonants.* 

Formation of the Three Tense-Stems. 

218. (1.) In the first and fourth conjugations, and in 
the few corresponding verbs of the second, the stems show 
the following formations : — 

a. Present stem is the verb-stem contracted with the thematic 

vowel. 

b. Perfect stem is present stem -|- v. 

c. Perfect participle stem is present stem -f- to. 
Thus : — 

amare Vara ama- amav- amato- 

flere Vfle(v) fie- flev- fleto- 

audlre Vaud audi- audlv- audlto- 

(2.) But in the second conjugation most verbs form the 
perfect stem directly from the root, v then appearing 
as u after the root-consonant ; their perfect participle 
stem is also formed directly from the root and frequently 
has an intervening i before the ending. Thus : — 
docere Vdoc doce- docu- docto- 

monere Vmon mone- monu- monito-f 

219. (1.) In the third conjugation the present and 

* The third conjugation is the oldest, and shows the noun origin of the 
infinitive most plainly, namely, that it is really the dative or locative of a 
noun like genus or pignus, dative generl and pigneri. Old forms of the 
dative in e occur in inscriptions. 

t The origin of this i is uncertain. It may he the thematic vowel, or in 
some cases a parasitic vowel (see 64), or, which is perhaps most likely, it 
may have heen weakened from e ; as, monetum, monetum, monitum. Words 
like obsoletus and rnoneta, with the series of nouns in -etum, — vinetum, quer- 
cetum, etc., — beside forms like mereto in inscriptions, support this last 



VERBS. — STEMS. — PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



101 



perfect stems present various peculiarities which can best 
be treated in detail later. The commonest forms of per- 
fect stem are those in s-, and those which have the same 
form as the present stem, or only lengthen the stem-vowel. 
(2.) The perfect participle stem is formed from the 
root except in the case of the derivative u- verbs, where 
it is formed from the stem with the vowel lengthened. 
The t often appears euphonically as s. Thus : — 

regere v reg rege- rex- recto- 

fundere Vfud funde- fud- fuso- 

statuere V sta statue- statu- statuto- 



Principal Parts. 

220. The principal parts of a Latin verb are the 
Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, 
and Perfect Participle. In the case of passive and depo- 
nent verbs the perfect participle is not counted, being in- 
cluded in the perfect indicative. 

Note. The principal parts are so called because they furnish the key- 
to the conjugation of the whole verb. The present indicative names the 
verb. The present infinitive is also used to name the verb, as in English, 
but its more important function is to show to which conjugation the verb 
belongs. The three stems are shown by the infinitive, the perfect, and the 
perfect participle. 

221. The principal parts in the four conjugations are 
as follows : — 



Conjugation. 


Pres. Ind. 


Pres. Inf. 


Perf. Ind. 


Perf. Part. 


I. 


amo 


amare 


amavi 


amatus 




( fleo 


flere 


flevi 


fletus 


II. 


< doceo 


docere 


docui 


doctus 




( moneo 


monere 


monui 


monitus 




( rego 


regere 


rexi 


rectus * 


III. 


I fund5 


fundere 


fudi 


fusus* 




( statuo 


statuere 


statu! 


statutus * 


IY. 


audio 


audire 


audivi 


auditus 



* These examples show, of course, only a few of the stem forms in this 
conjugation. 



102 



INFLECTION. 



222. ACTIVE VOICE. 

I. Conjugation. II. Conjugation. 



Pres. Ind. 
Pres. Infin. 
Perf. Ind. 
Perf. Part. 



Singular 



Plural 



Singular 



Plural 



Singular 



Plural 



amare, 


flere, 


monere, 


to love 


to weep 


to put in mind 


Principal Parts. 




amo 


fleo 


moneS 


amare 


flere 


monere 


amavi 


flevi 


monui 


amatus 


fletus 


monitus 


Indicative Mood. 




PRESENT TENSE. 




amo 


fleo 


moneo 


amas 


fles 


mones 


amat 


flet 


monet 


amamus 


flemus 


monemus 


amatis 


fietis 


monetis 


amant 


flent 

IMPERFECT. 


monent 


amabam 


flebam 


monebam 


amabas 


flebas 


monebas 


amabat 


flebat 


monebat 


amabamus 


fiebamus 


monebamus 


am abatis 


flebatis 


monebatis 


amabant 


flebant 

FUTURE. 


monebant 


amabS 


flebo 


monebo 


amabis 


flebis 


monebis 


amabit 


flebit 


monebit 


amabimus 


flebimus 


monebimus 


amabitis 


flebitis 


monebitis 


amabunt 


fiebunt 


monebunt 



REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 



103 



ACTIVE VOICE. 
III. Conjugation. IV. Conjugation. 



regere, 


cap ere, 


venire, 


audire, 


to rule 


to take 


to come 


to he 




Principal Parts. 




rego 


capio 


veni5 


audi5 


regere 


capere 


venire 


audire 


rexi 


cepi 


veni 


audi vi 


rectus 


captus 


ventum * 


auditus 



rego 

regis 
regit 

regimus 

regitis 

regunt 



Indicative Mood, 
present tense. 



capio 
capis 
capit 

capimus 

capitis 

capiunt 



venio 
venis 
venit 

venimus 

venitis 

veniunt 



audio 
audis 
audit 

audimus 

auditis 

audiunt 



IMPERFECT. 



regebam 

regebas 

regebat 

regebamus 

regebatis 

regebant 



capiebam 

capiebas 

capiebat 

capiebamus 

capiebatis 

capiebant 



veniebam 

veniebas 

veniebat 



audiebam 

audiebas 

audiebat 



veniebamus audiebamus 
veniebatis audiebatis 
veniebant audiebant 



regam 

reges 

reget 

regemus 

regetis 

regent 



FUTURE. 

capiam veniam audiam 

capies venies audies 

capiet veniet audiet 

capiemus veniemus audiemus 

capietis venietis audietis 

capient venient audient 



* Used only impersonally, since venire is an intransitive verb. (Cf. 194.) 



104 



INFLECTION. 



PERFECT. 

Singular amavi flevi monui 

amavisti fievisti monuisti 

amavit flevit monuit 

Plural amavimus flevimus monuimus 

amavistis flevistis monuistis 

amaverunt fleverunt monuerunt 
(-ere)* (-ere) (-ere) 



PLUPERFECT. 

Singular amaveram fleveram 

amaveras fleveras 

am aver at fleverat 

Plural amaveramus fleveramus 

amaveratis fieveratis 

amaverant fleverant 



monueram 

monueras 

monuerat 

monueramus 

monueratis 

monuerant 



FUTURE PERFECT. 

Singular amaver5 flever5 

amaveris fleveris 

amaverit fleverit 

Plural amaverimns fleverimus 

amaveritis fleveritis 

amaverint fleverint 



monuero 
monueris 
momierit 

monuerimus 

monueritis 

monuerint 



Subjunctive Mood. 



PRESENT. 



Singular 



Plural 



amem 


fleam 


moneam 


ames 


fleas 


moneas 


amet 


fleat 


moneat 


amemus 


fleamus 


moneamus 


ametis 


fleatis 


moneatis 


ament 


fleant 


moneant 



The forms in -ere are rare in prose, except in the historians. 



REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 



105 





PERFECT. 




rexi 

rexisti 
rexit 


cepi 

cepisti 

cepit 


veni 

venisti 

venit 


audivi 

audivisti 

audivit 


reximus 
rexistis 
rexerunt 
(-ere)* 


cepimus 
cepistis 
ceperunt 
(-ere) 


venimus 
venistis 
venerunt 
(-ere) 


audivimus 

audivistis 

audiverunt 

(-ere) 




PLUPERFECT. 




rexeram 

rexeras 

rexerat 


ceperam 

ceperas 

ceperat 


veneram 

veneras 

venerat 


audiveram 

audiveras 

audiverat 


rexeramus 

rexeratis 

rexerant 


ceperamus 

ceperatis 

ceperant 


veneramus 

veneratis 

venerant 


audiveramus 

audiveratis 

audiverant 




FUTURE 


PERFECT. 




rexero 
rexeris 
rexerit 


cepero 

ceperis 

ceperit 


vener5 
veneris 
venerit 


audlvero 
audiveris 
audiverit 


rexerimus 

rexeritis 

rexerint 


ceperimus 

ceperitis 

ceperint 


venerimus 

veneritis 

venerint 


audlverimus 

audiveritis 

audiverint 




Subjunctive Mood. 






present. 




regam 

regas 

regat 


capiam 

capias 

capiat 


veni am 

venias 

veniat 


audiam 

audias 

audiat 


regamus 

regatis 

regant 


capiamus 

capiatis 

capiant 


veniamus 

veniatis 

veniant 


audiamus 
audiat is 
audiant 



* The forms in -ere are rare in prose, except in the historians. 



106 


INFLECTION. 








imperfect. 




Singular 


^amarem 

amares 
amaret 


flerem 

fleres 

fleret 


monerem 

moneres 

moneret 


Plural 


amaremus 

amaretis 

amarent 


fleremus 

fleretis 

flerent 

PERFECT. 


moneremus 

moneretis 

monerent 


Singular 


amaverim 

amaveris 

amaverit 


fleverim 

fleveris 

fleverit 


monuerim 

monueris 

monuerit 


Plural 


amaverimus 

amaveritis 

amaverint 


fleverimus 

fleveritis 

fleverint 

PLUPERFECT. 


monuerimus 

monueritis 

monuerint 


Singular 


amavissem 

araavisses 

amavisset 


flevissem 

flevisses 

flevisset 


monuissem 

monuisses 

monuisset 


Plural 


amavissemus 

amavissetis 

amavissent 


; flevissemus 
fievissetis 
flevissent 


monuissemus 

monuissetis 

monuissent 




Imperative Mood. 








PRESENT. 




Sing. 2d Per. ama 


fle 


mone 


Plur. 2d Per. amate 


flete 


monete 






FUTURE. 




Sing. 2d Per. amato 
3d Per. amato 


fleto 
flet5 


moneto 
monet5 


Plur. 2d Per. amatote 
3d Per. amanto 


fletote 
flentS 


monetSte 
monento 



REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 



107 



regerem 

regeres 

regeret 

regeremus 

regeretis 

regerent 



IMPERFECT. 

caperem venlrem audirem 

caperes venires audires 

caperet veniret audiret 

caperemus veniremus audiremus 

caperetis veniretis audiretis 

caperent venlrent audirent 



PERFECT. 

rexerim ceperim venerim audiverira 

rexeris ceperis veneris audiveris 

rexerit ceperit venerit audiverit 

rexerhnus ceperimus venerimus audiverimus 

rexeritis ceperitis veneritis audiveritis 

rexerint ceperint venerint audiverint 



PLUPERFECT. 

rexissem cepissem venissem 

rexisses cepisses venisses 

rexisset cepisset venisset 

rexissemus cepissemus venissemus 

rexissetis cepissetis venissetis 

rexissent cepissent venissent 



audlvissem 

audivisses 

audivisset 

audlvissemus 

audivissetis 

audivissent 



Imperative Mood. 







PRESENT. 




rege 


cape 


veni 


audi 


regite 


capite 


venite 

FUTURE. 


audite 


regitS 


capito 


venitS 


audito 


regito 


capito 


venit5 


audits 


regitote 


capit5te 


venitote 


auditote 


reguntS 


capiunto 


veniunt5 


audiuntS 



1US 




INFLECTION. 








Infinitives. 




Pres. 


amare 


flere 


monere 


Perf. 


amavisse 


flevisse 


monuisse 


Future 


amaturus 


fleturus 


moniturus 




(-a, -urn) 


esse (-a, -urn) esse 
Participles. 


(-a, -urn) esse 


Pres. 


amans 


flens 


monens 


Future 


amaturus 


fleturus 


moniturus 




(-a, -urn) 


(-a, -urn) 
Gerund. 


(-a, -urn) 


Gen. 


amandl 


flendi 


monendi 


D. & A. 


amando 


flenda 


monendo 


Ace. 


amandum 


flendum 
Supine. 


monendum 


Ace. 


amatum 


[fletum] * 


monitum 


Abl. 


amatu 


fletu 


monitu 



223. PASSIVE VOICE. 

I. Conjugation. II. Conjugation. 

Principal Parts. 
Pres. Ind. amor doceor f moneor 

Pres. Inf. amari doceri moneri 

Perf. Ind. amatus sum doctus sum monitus sum 

Indicative Mood, 
present. 

Singular amor doceor moneor 

amaris (-re)$ doceris (-re) moneris (-re) 

amatur docetur monetur 

Plural amamur docemur monemur 

amamini docemini monemini 

amantur docentur monentur 

* Not found in actual use in the Latin that has come down to us. 

t Meaning 1 , I am taught- The active voice is perfectly regular, and is 
omitted only heeause^eo heside moneo furnishes a more instructive para- 
digm. 

t The forms in -re are rare in the present tense. 



REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 



109 



Infinitives. 
regere capere venire 

rexisse cepisse venisse 

recturus capturus ventiirus 

(-a-, urn) esse (-a, -urn) esse (-a, -una) 

Participles. 
regens capiens veniens 

recturus capturus venturus 

(-a, -um) (-a, -urn) (-a -urn) 

Gerund. 
regendi capiendl veniendi 

regendo capiendo veniendo 

regendum capiendum veniendum 

Supine. 
rectum captum ventum 

rectu captu. ventu 



audire 
audivisse 
auditurus 
(-a,-um)esse 

audiens 
auditurus 
(-a, -um) 

audiendi 
audiendo 
audiendum 

auditum 
auditu 



PASSIVE VOICE, 
ni. Conj. IV. Conj. 

Principal Parts. 
regor capior audior 

regi cap! audiri 

rectus sum captus sum auditus sum 

Indicative Mood, 
present. 
regor capior audior 

regeris (-re) f caperis (-re) audiris (-re) 
regitur capitur auditur 

regimur capimur audimur 

regimini capimini audimini 

reguntur capiuntur audiuntur 



Deponent. 



miror * 
mirari 
miratus sum 



miror 

miraris (-re) 

miratur 

miramur 

miramini 

mirantur 



* Meaning-, I wonder at or admire. 

t The forms in -re are rare in the present tense. 



110 



Singular 



Plural 



Singular 



Plural 



Singular 



Plural 



Singular 



Plural 



Singular 



Plural 





INFLECTION. 






IMPERFECT. 




amabar 


docebar 


monebar 


amabaris 


docebaris 


monebaris 


(-re) 


(-re) 


(-re) 


amabatur 


docebatur 


monebatur 


amabamur 


docebamur 


monebamur 


amabamini 


docebaminl 


monebamini 


amabantur 


docebantur 

FUTURE. 


monebantur 


amabor 


docebor 


monebor 


amaberis (-re) doceberis (-re) moneberis (-re) 


amabitur 


docebitur 


monebitur 


amabimur 


docebimur 


monebimur 


amabimini 


docebimini 


monebimini 


amabuntur 


docebuntur 

PERFECT. 


monebuntur 


amatus 


doctus 


monitus 


(-a, -urn) 


(-a, -um) 


(-a, -um) 


amati 


docti 


moniti 


(-ae, -a) 


(-ae, -a) 

PLUPERFECT. 


(-ae, -a) 


amatus 


doctus 


monitus 


(-a, -um) 


(-a, -um) 


(-a, -um) 


amati 


docti 


moniti 


(-ae, -a) 


(-ae, -a) 


(-ae, -a) 


FUTURE PERFECT. 




amatus 


doctus 


monitus 


(-a, -um) 


(-a, -um) 


(-a, -um) 


amati 


docti 


moniti 


(-ae, -a) 


(-ae, -a) 


(-ae, -a) 



REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. Ill 



IMPERFECT. 

regebar capiebar audiebar mirabar 

regebaris capiebaris audiebaris mlrabaris 

(-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) 

regebatur capiebatur audiebatur mlrabatur 

regebamur capiebamur audiebamur mlrabamur 

regebamini capiebamini audiebamim mirabamini 

regebantur capiebantur audiebantur mirabantur 

FUTURE. 

regar capiar audiar mirabor 

regeris (-re) capieris (-re) audieris (-re) miraberis (-re) 

regetur capietur audietur mirabitur 

regemur capiemur audiemur mirabimur 

regemim capiemini audiemini mirabimini 

regentur capientur audientur mirabuntur 

PERFECT. 

rectus captus auditus miratus j sum 

(-a, -urn) (-a, -urn) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) 1 es 



est 

( sumus 

■< estis 
(-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) | gunt 



recti capti audit! mirati 



PLUPERFECT. 

rectus captus auditus miratus 






eram 



-< eras 
(-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) ) emt 



recti capti audit! mirati 



{ eramus 

< eratis 



(-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) ^ erant 






ero 



FUTURE PERFECT. 

rectus captus auditus miratus 

(-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) | erit 

_ ,- ^ __.. _ _,- ( erimus 

recti capti auditi mirati ) 

(-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) j 

x v erunt 



112 



INFLECTION. 



Subjunctive Mood, 
present. 
Singular amer docear monear 

ameris (-re) docearis (-re) monearis (-re) 
ametur doceatur moneatur 



Plural 



Singular 



Plural 



Singular 



Plural 



Singular 



Plural 



amemur 


doceamur 


moneamur 


amemini 


doceamini 


moneamini 


amentur 


doceantur 

IMPERFECT. 


moneantur 


amarer 


docerer 


monerer 


amareris 


docereris 


monereris 


(-re) 


(-re) 


(-re) 


amaretur 


doceretur 


moneretur 


amaremur 


doceremur 


moneremur 


amaremini 


doceremini 


moneremini 


amarentur 


docerentur 

PERFECT. 


monerentur 


amatus 


doctus 


monitus 


(-a, -urn) 


(-a, -urn) 


(-a, -urn) 


amati 


docti 


moniti 


(-ae, -a) 


(-ae, -a) 

PLUPERFECT. 


(-ae, -a) 


amatus 


doctus 


monitus 


(-a, -urn) 


(-a, -urn) 


(-a, -um) 


amati 


docti 


moniti 


(-ae, -a) 


(-ae, -a) 


(-ae, -a) 



REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 



113 



Subjunctive Mood, 
present. 
regar capiar audiar mirer 

regaris (-re) capiaris (-re) audiaris (-re) mireris (-re) 
regatur capiatur audiatur miretur 



regamur capiamur 
regamini capiamini 
regantur capiantur 



audiamur miremur 
audiamini miremini 
audiantur mirentur 



IMPERFECT. 

regerer caperer audirer mirarer 

regereris caperer is audirer is mirareris 

(-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) 

regeretur caperetur audiretur miraretur 



regeremur caperemur 
regeremini caperemini 
regerentur caperentur 



audiremur miraremur 
audlremini miraremini 
audirentur mirarentur 



PERFECT. 

rectus captus auditus 

(-a, -urn) (-a, -um) (-a, -urn) 

recti capti audit! 

(-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) 

PLUPERFECT. 

rectus captus auditus 

(-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) 

recti capti auditi 

(-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) 



miratus 
(-a, -um) 



rnirati 

(-ae, -a) 1 T** 
( sint 



sun 

sis 

sit 
r simus 
■< sitis 



miratus 
(-a, -um) 



essem 

esses 
esset 



_ _ ,. ( essemus 

mirati \ 

, . -{ essetis 

(-ae, -a) j 

v J C essent 



114 



INFLECTION. 



Imperative Mood. 





PRESENT. 




Sing. 2 P. amare 


docere 


monere 


Plur. 2 P. amamini 


docemini 

FUTURE. 


monemini 


Sing. 2 P. amator 


docetor 


monetor 


3 P. amator 


docetor 


monetor 


Plnr ° P 






3 P. amantor 


docentor 
Infinitives. 


monentor 


Present amari 


doceri 


monerl 


Perfect amatus 


doctus 


monitus 



(-a, -inn) esse (-a, -urn) esse (-a, -um) esse 



Future 

Present 
Perfect 

Future 



amatum in doctum Iri 
Participles. 



monitnm Iri 



amatus doctus 

(-a, um) (-a, -um) 



monitus 
(-a, -um) 



Gerundive. 

amandus docendus 

(-a, -um) (-a, -um) 



monendus 
(-a, -um) 



REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 



115 



Imperative Mood. 







PRESENT. 




regere 


capere 


audire 


mirare 


regimini 


capiminl 


audlmini 

FUTURE. 


mlramini 


regitor 


capitor 


auditor 


mirator 


regitor 


capitor 


auditor 


mirator 



Participles. 



rectus 
(-a, -um) 



captus 
(-a, -um) 



auditus 
(-a, -um) 



reguntor capiuntor audiuntor mirantor 

Infinitives. 
regi cap! audiri mirari 

rectus captus auditus miratus 

(-a, -um) esse (-a, -um) esse (-a, -um) esse (-a, -um) esse 

( miratum Iri * 
rectum iri captum iri auditum Iri ■) miratiirus 

(-a, -um) esse 

mirans 
miratus 

(-a, -um) 
miraturus 

(-a, -um) 

mirandus * 
(-a, -um) 

Gerund. 
mirandi, etc. 

Supine. 
miratum, etc. 

* The gerundive and the infinitive in iri have passive meanings even in 
deponent verbs. Thus : hie vir mirandus est, this man must be admired ; 
dixit hoc miratum iri, he said this would be wondered at. So also some- 
times the perfect participle. 



regendus 
(-a, -um) 



Gerundive. 
capiendus audiendus 

(-a, -um) (-a, -um) 



116 INFLECTION. 

224. The following forms can always be recognized by 
the presence of certain letters : * — 

1. Imperf. indie, ba. 

2. Fut. indie, in 1st and 2d. conj., b not followed by a. 

3. Pres. subj., f except in 1st conj., a before personal ending. 

4. Imperf. subj. is like pres. infin. -\- personal ending. 

5. Pluperf. indie, ra. \ 

6. Pluperf. subj., isse -j- personal ending. >-In the active. 

7. Perf. infin., isse. ) 

a. It will also be seen that the present imperative passive 
second person singular has the same form as the present infini- 
tive active. Furthermore, that the subjunctive present of the 
first conjugation resembles the future indicative of the third 
and fourth. 

b. The letters ri show that the form in which they occur is 
either future perfect indicative or perfect subjunctive active. 

The following points may be noted in addition to the rules of 
quantity given in 37-53. 

225. In the penultimate syllables of verb forms the 
following vowels before a single consonant are long : — 

a always (but see dare). 

e, except before r, and even then in the perfect indicative ac- 
tive and in the present subjunctive of the first conjugation and 
the future indicative of the third and fourth. 

i in the fourth conjugation and analogous forms. 

u, except in swrnus and volumus (with their compounds), and 
the old forms quaesumus, aestumo, etc. (for later quaerimus, 
aestimo, etc.). 

* To trace the origin and development of these elements in verb-forms 
would require entering 1 more fully into comparative philology than is possi- 
ble or desirable in a school grammar. They may be found discussed in 
Max Engelhardt's Die lateinische Konjugation nack den Ergebnissen der 
Sprachvergleichung. 

t The first person singular in the third and fourth conjugations cannot, 
however, be thus distinguished from the first person of the future indica- 
tive, as that also has the a. 



seco 


secare 


secul 


peto 


petere 


petivi 


maneo 


manere 


mansl 


venio 


venire 


veni 



REMARKS ON THE VERB FORMS. 117 

a. The characteristics of the first, second, and fourth conju- 
gations (a, e, I) are always long except when shortened in final 
syllables by the rules given in 46-50 ; that of the third conju- 
gation (e) is always short. 

Remarks on tne Verb Forms. 

226. Many verbs belonging to a given one of the four 
conjugations (as shown by their present infinitive) form 
their perfect and perfect participle stems after the anal- 
ogy of some other conjugation. Thus : — 

sectus 
petit us 

mansum (neut.) 
ventum (neut.) 

Note. Such verbs are really mixtures of two verbs. Some of the 
forms of the root verbs (third conjugation) had disappeared, and their 
places were taken by derivative formations of the first, second, or fourth 
conjugation. The same mixture of forms accounts for the perfects in -ui 
and participles in -itus, in the second conjugation. 

For lists of these irregular formations see 233 ff. 

227. In the tenses formed from the present stem the 
following points should be noted : — 

a. Orior, rise, and (chiefly in verse) potior, gain possession 
of, though belonging to the fourth conjugation, have several 
forms of the third. Thus : — 

oreris, oritur, orimur, oreretur, orere. 
potitur, potimur, poti, poteremur, poterentur. 

b. On the other hand, morior, die, and some compounds of 
gradior, step, though of the third conjugation, have sometimes 
infinitives in -Iri, like the fourth. 

c. The imperfect indicative in the fourth conjugation some- 
times has a form in -ibam, -ibas, etc. Thus : scibam, from 
scire, to know. 

d. The future in the fourth conjugation often has in early 
Latin a form in -Ibo, -Ibis, etc. Thus : scibo. 

e. The second person singular of the present imperative active 



118 INFLECTION. 

has no final -e in the following four verbs : died, say ; duco, lead ; 
fero, bring ; facio, do or make. Thus : die, due, fer, fac. So 
also their compounds, except the compounds of facio with a 
preposition ; as, confice, from conficio. 

Scio has no present imperative ; nor do cupe and polle occur, 
from capio and polled. 

f. The active forms of the future imperative occur instead of 
the passive in the early writers and their imitators. This is es- 
pecially common in deponent verbs. An ancient form in -mino 
is found in the second and third persons singular of the present 
imperative of several deponents ; * as, antestamino, let him sum- 
mon as a witness ; tu prdgredimino, you go ahead. 

g. In the third and fourth conjugations the gerund and 
gerundive often retain the earlier endings -undum and -undus 
instead of -endum and -endus, especially if i precedes. Poti- 
undus is the regular form. Ire, to go, has always eundum (see 
248). 

228. Among the tenses formed from the perfect stem 
the following points require notice : — 

a. When the perfect stem ends in V-, the V is often dropped, 

and the vowels thus brought together are contracted in the forms 

made upon the pattern of the fourth conjugation, if s follows, 

and in the forms of other conjugations, if s or r follows ; as : — 

audissem for audivissem 

amasti " amavisti 

implerunt " impleverunt 



nor am " 


n5veram 


nosse " 


novisse 


cSnsuesse " 


consuevisse 



h. When the perfect stem ends in Iv-, the V is sometimes 
dropped without contraction ; as : — 

audiisse for audivisse 
petierunt " petiverunt 

* This form occurs once from a passive verb, denuntiamino (3d pers. 
sing.), let it be proclaimed. 



PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS. 119 

c. "When the perfect stem ends in s- or X-, shorter forms 
occur without the penultimate syllables -is-, -iss-, or -sis-. 
Thus : evasti, exstinxti, surrexe, accestis, dixti, exstlnxem, 
beside evasisti, exstmxisti, surrexisse, accessistis, dixisti, ex- 
stinxissem.* 

d. Ancient forms of a future perfect in -so, and of a perfect 
subjunctive in -sim, formed. from the present stem, sometimes 
occur ; as, capso, faxo, habesso, iiisso, levasso, recepso ; ausim, 
confexim, dixis, emissim, faxim, licessit, locassim. So also the 
pluperfect suhjumctive faxem. 

e. A future passive of similar form occurs rarely in ancient 
Latin ; as, turbassitur, mssitur ; and a future infinitive active 
of the first conjugation in -sere ; as, expugndssere, impetrassere. 

Periphrastic Conjugations. 

229. (1.) The future participle joined with the forms 
of sum makes what is called the active periphrastic con- 
jugation. Thus : — 

amaturus sum. I am on the point of loving, am destined 

or intend to love, etc. 
amaturus eram, erd, fui, etc. 

a. Fuero is hardly so used. 

(2.) The gerundive with the forms of sum makes what 
is called the passive periphrastic conjugation — denoting 
what must or ought to be done. Thus : — 

amandus sum, I must be loved, or ought to be loved, 
amandus eram, ero, fui, etc. 

(3.) The perfect participle with the parts of sum has 
sometimes a quasi-adjective force. Thus, forms like 
amatus sum, amatus essem, etc., may be simply the pas- 
sive tenses of completed action, or the verb sum may 
have its regular time and the participle be, as suggested, 
a kind of adjective. 

* Some of these were perhaps formed from the present stem like the 
forms treated in d, others seem to have come from the regular forms. 



120 



INFLECTION. 



a. 



The distinctions of meaning here involved can perhaps 
best be made plain by a scheme like the following : — 

. , - { Hist. Perf . He ivas killed. 

, ^ * < Perf. Def. He has been killed. 

( Adjec. & Verb, He is dead. 
f The wicked are suffering pun- 
puniuntur mall can only j ishment, or Men punish the 
mean wicked (always or when they 

*- are caught). 
(I was loved (fui, Hist. Perf.) 
amatus fui may mean < I have been loved (fui, Perf. 

( Def.) 
b. On the other hand, the English present passive is expressed 
in Latin (1) by the present only when it denotes continued or 
customary action ; as, faenum secatur, they are cutting hay ; 
faenum aestate secatur, hay is cut in summer ; (2) by the per- 
fect when it denotes a state ; as, faenum sectum est, the hay is 
cut ; volnus curatum est, the wound is dressed. 

Stem-Formation in Third Conjugation. 

230. The verbs of the third conjugation may be classi- 
fied with regard to their present sterns as follows * : — 

a. Present stem is the root (which serves also as the verb 
stem) -f- the thematic vowel. Thus : — 

regere Vreg 

petere Vpet 

b. The first consonant of the root is prefixed with i (redupli- 
cation^. This class contains very few verbs. Thus : — 

gignere Vgen {or in weaker form Vgn) 

c. Present stem takes t ; as : — 

flectere Vflec 

* These formations are remnants of the verb forms inherited by the 
Latin from Indo-European, and were there originally produced by forma- 
tive suffixes ; but of course no thorough discussion of them can be given in 
a school grammar. 



STEM-FORMATION IN THIRD CONJUGATION. 121 

d. Present stem takes n. Thus : — 

(1) n simply added to roots in r- (also two vowel roots) ; 

spernere Vsper 

linere Vli 

sinere Vsi 

(2) n added to roots in 1 and assimilated ; as : — 

pellere (for pelnere) Vpel 

fallere (for falnere) Vfal 

(3) n inserted before a final mute (palatal or dental) ; as : — 

findere Vfid 

tangere V tag 

(4) n changed to m before a labial mute ; as : — 



rumpere 


Vrup 


e. Present stem takes sc- ; as : — 




pascere 


Vpa 


crescere 


Vcre 


/. Present stem takes i- ; * as : — 




capio, capere 


Vcap 


facio, facere 


Vfac 



Note 1. These verbs in -io occupy a sort of midway position between 
the consonant stems of the third conjugation and the verbs of the fourth 
conjugation, as can be seen by comparing the following verbs : — 
lego legere legi lectus 

capio capere cepl captus 

cupio cupere eupivi cupitus 

venid venire veni ventum 

And pario, parere, beside reperio, reperlre. 

Note 2. A few verbs show more than one of the formations described. 
Thus: disco (for di-dc-sco, Vdec), learn, belongs to the reduplicated class 
and to the sc- class. 

Note 3. In some verbs the strengthened forms extend further than the 
present stem and sometimes through the entire verb, as in iungo, iungere, 
iunxl, iunctum, ^iug, and in most of the t- class except mltto. 

* This i disappears before another i and before e, unless two consonants 
follow, as in the present participle, the gerund and gerundive. (Cf. the 
paradigm above.) 



122 INFLECTION. 

231. The perfect stem in the third conjugation is 
formed in the following ways : — 

a. The perfect stem is generally the same as the present stem 
when the present stem ends in u- or in nd-. Thus : — 

Verb. Pres. Stem. Perf. Stem. 

tribuo tribu- tribu- 

scando scand- scand- 

b. The perfect stem adds s to the root : — 

(1) In most verbs with a long vowel in the root syllable. 
Thus : — 

figo fig- fix- 

ludo lud- lus- 

ced5 ced- cess- 

dico die- dix- 

sumo sum- sumps- 

(2) In most verbs with the stem syllable long by position 
(except those in nd-). Thus : — 

carpS carp- carps- 

fingo fing- finx- 

(3) In a few other verbs. Thus : — 

coqu5 coqu- cox- 

Note. Some (mostly roots ending in a middle mute — g, d, b) also 
lengthen the root vowel ; as, rego, rexl, fluo, fluxl (y/Jlug), Jingo, finxl. 

c. The stem vowel is lengthened in many verbs with a single 
short vowel before a single consonant in the root syllable, a 
becoming e, except before b and v. Thus : — 



emo 


em- 


em- 


fodi5 


fod- 


fod- 


fugio 


fug- 


fug- 


lego 


leg- 


leg- 


ago 


ag- 


eg- 


capio 


cap- 


cep- 


scabo 


scab- 


scab- 


lav5 


lav- 


lav- 


And in vincS 


vinc- 


vic- 



d. The following verbs form the perfect stem by reduplication. 



STEM-FORMATION IN THIRD CONJUGATION. 



121 



The initial consonant and vowel are prefixed to the root, but 

if the root vowel is a, it is weakened to i (to e in fallo, pared, 

and pario) ; if ae, to l ; and if e or o before 1, to u. When 
the root vowel is thus weakened, the vowel of reduplication is 
always e. Thus : — 

cad.5 cad- cecid- 

caedo caed- cecid- 

cano can- cecin- 

curro curr- cucurr- 

disco disc- didic- 

fallo fall- fefell- 

[pago] pag- pepig- 

parco pare- peperc- 

pario par- peper- 

pedo ped- peped- 

pello pell- pepul- 

pendo pend- pepend- 

posco poso poposo 

pung5 pung- pupug- 

sisto sist- # stit- 

tango tang- tetig- 

tendo tend- tetend- 

toll5 toll- tetul- {rare) 

tundo tund- tutud- 

Findo and scindo have dropped the reduplication, making 
fidi and scidl. Sciscidi also occurs. 

(1) For convenience the few verbs of other conjugations 
which have reduplicated perfects are here given : — 

do dare dedi 

sto stare steti f 

mordeo mordere momordi 

pendeo pendere pependi 

spondeo spondere spopondi t 

tondeo tondere totondi 

* The si of the present stem is also reduplication. It -will be seen that 
in the perfect the stem syllable loses its s : stitl for stisti. 

t It will be seen that the stem syllable loses its first consonant (s) when 
:wo consonants are prefixed in reduplication. 



124 INFLECTION. 

(2) Simple reduplicated perfects have the first two syllables 
short, except cecidi and pepedi. 

(3) Compounds usually drop the reduplication, but it is re- 
tained in the compounds of do, sto, disco, posed, and sometimes 
ciirro.* Thus : — 



dedo 


dedidi t 


c5nst5 


cSnstiti f 


circumsto 


circumsteti 


perdlsc5 


perdidici 


exposed 


expoposci 


decurro 


decucurri or decurri 



232. The perfect participle stem ends in so- instead of 
to- in the following cases : — 

a. "When the present stem ends in a dental mute. A short 
vowel before the ending is then generally lengthened, the mute 
being dropped. Thus : — 

cado cad- caso- 

rad5 rad- raso- 

fundo fund- fuso- 

Sometimes assimilation occurs (cf. 65). Thus : — 
fodio fod- f5sso- 

b. When the present stem adds t. Thus : — 

flecto flec-t- flexo- 

c. Several stems in 1 or r. Thus : — 

fallo fall- falso- 

curr5 curr- curso- 

So also labor lab- lapso- 

d. Palatal stems which drop the palatal before s in the per- 
fect. The palatal is also dropped in the participle. Thus : — 

spargo sparsl sparsus 

* Abscondo has oftener abscond! than abscondidl. 

t The penultimate vowel is thus weakened in compounds of these two 
verbs with monosyllabic prepositions. 



IRREGULAR STEM-FORMATION, FIRST CONJUGATION. 125 

Irregular Stem-Formation. 

233. The following list contains the common verbs of 
the first conjugation which form their perfect or perfect 
participle, or both, irregularly : — 

crepo crepare crepui crepitum,* make a noise. 

Discrepo has also a regular perfect ; increpo has regular forms and also 
increpui, increpitum. 

cubo cubare cubui cubitum, lie down. 

Perf . subj. cubdris and perf . infin. cubdsse occur. See also under 235, v. 



do 


dare 


dedi 


datus, give.^ 


domo 


domare 


domui 


domitus, tame. 


frico 


fricare 


fricui 


frictus and fricatus, rub, 


iuvo 


iuvare 


iuvi 


iutus, help. 


Also iuvdturus. 

mico micare 


micui 


alitter. 



Dimico, fight, has also the regular forms, and emicdturus occurs. 

neco necare necavi or necui necatus, kill. 

Eneco has also enectus. 

plico plicare plicatus or plicitus, fold. 

Implied and explico have regular forms and also -plicui, -plicitus. So 
also applied and complied, except that complicdvl is not found. The other 
compounds are regular. 

poto potare potavi potatus or potus,t drink. 

seco secare secui sectus, cut, secaturus. 

sono son are sonui sound. 

Some compounds have -sondturus, and resono has resondvi. 

sto stare steti stand, staturus. 

tono tonare tonui thunder. 

Attono has also attonitus, intono has intondtus. 

veto vetare vetul vetitus, forbid. 

* The neuter form of the participle is given when the verb is intransi- 
tive. 

t Strictly speaking, dare does not belong to any of the conjugations, but 
it is usually reckoned as of the first because of its ending -are. (Cf. 
240, 1.) 

t Potus is really the participle of the simple verb of which poto is a fre- 
quentative, and often has the active meaning, having drunk. 



126 



INFLECTION. 



234. The following list contains the common verbs of 
the second conjugation which form their perfect or per- 
fect participle, or both, otherwise than in-ui and -itus : * — 



a. ab-oleo 
de-leo 
fleo 
neo 
-pleo t 

b. algeo 
ardeo 
audeo 
augeo 
caveo 
censeo 
cieo 



abolevi 

delevl 

flevi 

nevi 

-plevi f 

alsi 

arsi 

ausus sum 

auxi 

cavi 

censui 

civi 

Among compounds occur excitus and concitus, but accltus. 
doceo docul doctus, teach. 

fateor fassus sum fassus, confess. 

faveo f avi fautum, favor. 

ferveo ferbui boil. (Cf. 235.) 

Fervo, Jervere, fervi, also occurs. (Cf. 235, i.) 



abolitus, efface. 

deletus, blot out, destroy. 

fletus, weep. 

netus, spin. 

-pletusjf fill. 

be cold. 

arsum, be on fire. 

ausus, dare. 

auctus, increase. 

cautus, beware. 

census, think. 

citus (particip. adj.), call. 



foveo 


fovi 


fotus, cherish. 


fulgeo 


fulsi 


shine, gleam. 


gaudeo 


gavisus sum 


gavisus, rejoice. 


haereo 


haesi 


haesum, stick. 


in-dulgeo 


indulsi 


indultus, indulge. 


iubeo 


iussi 


iussus, bid, order. 


luceo 


luxl 


shine, be light. 


Polluceo has polluctum. 




lugeo 


luxi 


fYYl /VWV»/>1 


i/LUtlt Itm 


maneo 


mansi 


mansus, stay, wait for. 


misceo 


miscui 


( mistus, *) 

-< >• mix. 

( mixtus, ) 


mordeo 


momordi 


morsus, bite. 


moveo 


movT 


motus, move. 


mulceo 


mulsi 


mulsus, soothe. 


Permulctus 


occurs. 




* But see 231, d, 1. 


t In compounds. 



IRREGULAR STEM-FORMATION, THIRD CONJUGATION. 127 



mulgeo 




mulsi 


mulsus, milk. 


paveo 




pa vi 


fear. 


prandeo 




prandi 


pransus (act. meaning), 
breakfast, lunch. 


reor 




ratus sum 


ratus, think. 


rideo 




risi 


risum, laugh. 


sedeo 




sedi 


sessuin, sit. 


sorbeo 




sorbui 


suck in. 


Absorbed 


has absorpsi. 




strideo 




strldi 


whiz. (Cf. 235, i.) 


suadeo 




suasi 


suasum, advise. 


teneo 




tenui 


tentus, hold. 


tergeo 




tersi 


tersus, wipe. 


torqueo 




torsi 


tortus, twist. 


torreo 




torrui 


tostus, roast. 


turgeo 




tursi 


swell. (Cf.235,ii.) 


urgeo (urgue5) 


ursi 


urge. 


video 




vidi 


vlsus, see. 


voveo 




VOVl 


votus, vow. 



235. The following list contains the common verbs of 
the third conjugation, arranged according to the forma- 
tion of the perfect stem as given in 231 : — 

i. Perfect stem like present stem. 



acuo 
arguo 

bib 5 
capesso 

-cendo * 
congruo 
cudo 



acui 
argul 

bibi 
( capessi and ) 
( capessivi ) 

-cendi * 

congrui 



acutus, sharpen. 
argutus (particip. adj.), 

accuse, convict. 
bibitus, drink. 

undertake. (See vi., 

below.) 
-census,* kindle. 

agree. 

forge. 



This verb has no perfect and perfect participle, but the compounds have 
-cudi, -cusus. 

* In compounds. 



128 



INFLECTION. 



dego (de-ago) 
ex-uo, 
facesso 
fido 



degi 
exui 
facessi 
fisus sum, 



Confido has sometimes confldl. 



-f endo * 

fervo 

ico 

im-buo 

in-duo 

ingruo 

lambo 

luo 



-fendi 
fervi 

lCl 

imbui 

indui 

ingrui 

Iambi 

lui 



pass one's time. 

exutus, take off. 
facessitus, execute. 
fisus, trust. 

-fensus,* ward off. 

boil. (Cf.234.) 

ictus, strike. 
imbutus, wet, imbue. 
indutus, put on. 

rush upon. 

lick. 

wash, luiturus. 



Some compounds have -lutus. 



mando 
metuo 
minuo 
-nuo # 

pando 



pmso 

pluo 
pre-hendo 

(prendo) 
ruo 

scando 
sido 



mandi mansus, chew. 

metui metutus, fear. 

minui minutus 

-nui * -nutus,* nod. 

J pansus, 
( passus, 
( pmsitus 

pinsi and pinsui -< pmsus, 
( pistus, 



pandi 



open. 



pound. 



plui or pluvT 
prehendi (prendi) 

mi 

scandi 
sidi 



rain, 

prehensus 

seize. 
rutus (part, adj.) 

ruiturus. 
scansus, climb. 
settle. 



(prensus), 

fall, 



Compounds have sedi, sessum, from sedeo. 



solvo 
statuo 

sternuo 
strido 



solvi 
statu! 

sternui 
stridi 



solutus, loose. 
statutus, place, fix, deter- 
mine. 



sneeze. 

whiz. (Cf . 234.) 



* In compounds. 



LISTS OF VERBS IN THIRD CONJUGATION. 



129 



suo 


SU1 


sutus, sew. 


tribuo 


tribui 


tributus, assign, ascribe. 


vello 


velli and vols! 


volsus, pluck. (See ii., 
below.) 


verro 


verri 


versus, brush, sweep* 


verto 


verti 


versus, turn. 


viso 


V1S1 


visus, see, visit. 


volvo 


volvi 


volutus, roll. 


ii. Perfect stem adds s. 




carpo 


carpsi 


carptus, pluck. 


cedo 


cessi 


cessum, yield. 


cingo 


cmxi 


cinctus, gird. 


claudo 


clausi 


clausus, shut. 


clepo 


clepsi 


cleptus, steal. 


como (com-emo 


) compsi 


comptus, comb, deck. 


coquo 


COXl 


coctus, cook. 


demo (de-emo) 


dempsi 


demptus, take away. 


dico 


dixi 


dictus, say. 


di-vido 


divisi 


divisus, divide. 


duco 


duxi 


ductus, lead, guide. 


flgo 


fix! 


fixus, fix. 


fingo 


finxi 


f Ictus, fashion, feign. 


flecto 


flexi 


flexus, bend. 


fligo 


flixi 


flictus, dash. 


flu5 


fluxi 


fluxus (part, adj.), flow* 


frendo 




( fressus, ) 7 
\ ' [■ gnash. 
( iresus, ) 


Compounds have also fresi. 




frigo 


frixi 


( frictus, ) j. 

1 , _ \ freeze. 
( trixus, ) 


gero 


gessi 


gestus, carry. 


-lacio * 


-lexi * f 


-lectus,* f allure. 


iungo 


iunxi 


iunctus, join. 



* In compounds. 

t The perfects adlicui, elicul, perlicui, 
occur. 



and the participle elicitus, also 



30 


INFLECTION. 


laedo 


laesi 


laesus, hurt. 


lingo 


linxi 


linctus, lick. 


ludo 


lusi 


lusus, play. 


mergo 


mersi 


niersus, dip. 


mingo 


minxi 


mictuui, make water. 


mitto 


raisi 


missus, send. 


necto 


. nexi (nexui) 


nexus, weave. 


ningo 


ninxi 


snow. 


nubo 


niipsi 


nuptum, marry. 




{ panxi ) 


pactus, drive in, panc- 


pango 


•j Pegi [■ 


turus. (See iv. and v., 




( pepigi ) 


below.) 


pecto 


pexl (pexui) 


|P exus < I comb. 
( pectitus, ) 


pingo 


pinxi 


pictus, paint. 


plango 


planxi 


planctus, beat, lament. 


plaudo 


plausl 


plausus, clap the hands. 


plecto 


plexi (plexui) 


plexus, twine. 


premo 


press! 


pressus, press. 


promo (pro-emo) promps! 


promptus, bring out. 


quatio 


-cuss! # 


quassus, shake. 


rado 


rasi 


rasus, scrape, shave. 


rego 


rex! 


rectus, rule. 


repo 


repsi 


reptum, creep. 


rodo 


ros! 


rosus, gnaw. 


sarpo 


sarps! 


sarptus, prune. 


scalpo 


scalps! 


scalptus, scrape, engrave. 


scribo 


scrips! 


scriptus, write. 


sculpo 


sculps! 


sculptus, carve. 


serpo 


serps! 


crawl. 


spargo 


spars! 


sparsus, spread, scatter. 


specio 


spex! 


-spectus,* see, look at. 


stinguo 


-stinx! * 


-stmctus,* quench. 


stringo 


strinx! 


strictus, bind, graze. 


struo 


strux! 


structus, build. 




* In compounds. 



LISTS OF VERBS IN THIRD CONJUGATION. 



131 



sugo 


SUX1 


suctus, suck. 


sumo (sub-emo) 


sumpsi 


suraptus, take. 


tego 


texi 


tectus, cover. 


temno 


-tempsi * 


-temptus,* despise. 


tergo 


tersi 


tersus, wipe. (Cf. 234.) 


tingo (tinguo) 


tinxi 


tmctus, moisten, stain. 


traho 


traxi 


tractus, draw. 


trudo 


trusi 


trusus, thrust. 


ungo (unguo) 


unxi 


unctus, anoint. 


uro 


ussi 


ustus, bum (transitive). 


vado 


-vasi * 


vasum, go. 


veho 


vexi 


vectus, draw, carry. 


vello 


vols! and velll 


volsus, pluck. (See i., 
above.) 


vivo 


vixi 


victum, live. 


iii. Perfect lengthens root vowel. 


ago 


egl 


actus, drive. 


capio 


cepi 


captus, take. 


edo 


edi 


esus, eat. 


emo 


emi 


emptus, take, buy. 


facio 


feci 


factus, do, make. 


fodio 


fodi 


fossus, dig. 


frango 


fregi 


fractus, break. 


fugio 


fugi 


f ugitum, flee. 


fundo 


fudi 


fusus, pour. 


iacio 


iecl 


iactus, cast, throw. 


lavo 


lavi 


( lautus, 7 , 

•< , > wash. 
( lotus, ) 


Also lavdre, lavdvl, lavdtus. 




lego 


legi 


lectus, gather, read. 


linquo 


liqui 


-lictus,* leave. 


rumpo 


rupi 


ruptus, break, burst. 


scabo 


scab! 


scratch. 


vinco 


vici 


victus, conquer. 




* In compounds. 



32 


INFLECTION. 


iv. Reduplicated perfects. 




cado 


cecidi 


casum, fall. 


caedo 


cecidi 


caesus, cut. 


cano 


cecini 


cantus, sing. 


curro 


cucurri 


cursum, run. 


disco 


didici 


learn, disciturus. 


fallo 


fefelli 


falsus, deceive. 


pango 


pepigi 


pactus, drive in. (See ii., 
above, and vi., below.) 


parco 


peperci (pars!) 


parcitum (parsum), 
spare. 


pario 


peperi 


partus, bring forth, pari- 
turus. 


pello 


pepuh 


pulsus, drive. 


pendo 


pependi 


pensus, weigh. 


posco 


poposci 


demand. 


pungo 


pupugi 


punctus, prick. 


sisto 


stiti 


status (part, adj.), set. 


tango 


tetigl 


tactus, touch. 


tendo 


tetendi 


tentus or tensus, stretch. 


tundo 


tutudi 


tunsus or tusus, beat. 


v. Perfect stem adds v (u) to the root, after the ana- 


>gy of the second conjugation. 




alo 


alui 


altus or alitus, nourish. 


cello 


-cellui* 


-celsus,* push. 


cerno 


crevi 


cretus, decree. 


colo 


colui 


cultus, till. 


eom-pesco, 


compescui 


restrain. 


con-sulo, 


consului 


consultus, considt. 


cresco 


ere vi 


cretus, grow. 


-cumbo * 


-cubui * 


-cubitum,* lie down. 


depso 


depsui 


depstus, knead. 


fremo 


fremui 


fremitus, roar. 


[furo] f 


furui 


rage. 


gemo 


gemui 


gemitum, groan. 


* In compounds. t First 


person singular not found. 






LISTS OF VERBS IN THIRD CONJUGATION. 



133 



genitus, beget. 
litus, smear. 
messus, reap. 
molitus, grind. 
notus, learn, find out. 
occultus, hide. 

smell. 

pactus, drive in. (See ii. 

and iv., above.) 
pastus, feed. 
positus, put, place. 
raptus, seize. 
scitus, decree. 
satus, sow. 
sertus, entwine. 
situs, lay down, allow. 
spretus, scorn. 
stratus, strew. 

snore. 

strepitum, sound. 
textus, weave. 

tremble. 

us, vomi 

wish. (Cf. 242.) 

Here may also be given consuesco, consuevi (consuetus, adj.), accustom 
one's self. So other compounds, and quiesco, quievi, quietum, rest. 

vi. Perfect stems add Iv to the root, after the analogy 
of the fourth conjugation. 



gigno 


genu! 


lino 


lev! or hvi 


meto 


messui 


mold" 


molui 


nosco 


novi 


oc-culo 


occului 


olo 


olui 


pan go 


peg! 


pasco 


pavi 


pono (po-sino) 


posui 


rapio 


rapui 


SC1SCO 


SC1V1 


sero 


sevi 


sero 


serui 


sino 


slvi 


sperno 


sprevi 


sterno 


stravi 


sterto 


stertui 


strepo 


strepui 


texo 


texul 


tremo 


tremui 


vomo 


vomui 


volo (velle) 


volui 



arcesso 
capesso 

cupio 

incesso 

lacesso 

peto 

quaero 



arcessivi 
capessivi 

cupivi 

incessivi or incessi 

lacessivi 

petlvi 

quaesivi 



arcessitus, summon. 

undertake. (See 

above.) 
cupitus, desire. 

attach. 

lacessitus, provoke. 
petitus, aim at. 
quaesitus, ask, seek. 



134 



INFLECTION. 



rudo rudivi ruditum, bray. 

sapio sapivi be wise. 

Compounds have also -sipul in perfect, 

tero trivl tritus, 



rub, wear. 



vii. No perfect or perfect participle stems, 
ango, choke. glubo, peel. 

claudo, limp. hlsco, gape open. 

f atisco, crack open. plector,* be punished. 

fulgo, shine. tollo,f raise. 

gllsco, grow. vergo, incline. 

236. The following list contains the common simple 
deponents of the third conjugation : — 



am-plector 


am plexus, embrace. 


And other compounds. 




apiscor 


aptus, get. 


com-miniscor 


commentus, invent. 


And other compounds. 




ex-pergiscor 


experrectus, awake. 


fruor 


fructus, enjoy, fruiturus. 


fungor 


functus, perform. 


gradior 


gressus, walk. 


irascor 


iratus, be angry. 


labor 


lapsus, fall, slip. 


liquor 


melt. 


loquor 


locutus, speak. 


morior % 


mortuus, die, moriturus. 


nanciscor 


nactus or nanctus, get. 


nascor 


natus, be born, nasciturus. 


nitor 


nisus or nlxus, lean upon. 


ob-liviscor 


oblitus, forget. 


paciscor 


pactus, bargain. 


patior 


passus, suffer. 


pro-ficiscor 


profectus, start. 


queror 


questus, complain. 


* Only post classical in the active. 




t Perf . and perf . part, supplied by 


the compound forms sustuli, sublatus. 


% For irregular forms in this verb ! 


see 227, b. 



IRREGULAR VERBS, FOURTH CONJUGATION. 135 



ringor 


rictus, snarl. 


sequor 


secutus, follow, 


tuor 


tuitus, guard. 


Also tueor, tuerl. 




ulciscor 


ultus, avenge. 


utor 


usus, use. 


vescor 


eat. 



Re-vertor, reversus, return, and other compounds of verto, are generally- 
deponent only in the forms from the present stem and in the perfect par- 
ticiple. 

237. Except those given in 235 and 236, the verbs 
whose present stem ends in sc- have no perfect and per- 
fect participle stems, or else take those of their primi- 
tives ; as, adhaeresco, adhaesi, adhaesum. When de- 
rived from nouns or adjectives they form their perfect 
stem (in the few cases in which they have any) regularly ; 
those in -asc5 having av-, and those in -esco having u-, 
after the analogy of the first and second conjugations; 
as, vesperascit, vesperavit ; duresco, duruz. 

a. The quantity of the vowel before sc in inceptive verbs is 
always long, except in the few cases of verbs derived from con- 
sonant stems of the third conjugation. Thus : — 

Inveterasco, adsuesco, cresco, disco, seised, etc. 

Short are — 

Coaleseo, gemisco, ingemisco, tremesco, contremisco, vwesco, 
revivisco, adipiscor, indipiscor, depeciscor, expergiscor, nan- 
ciscor, paciscor, prqficiseor, reminiseor, ulciseor. 

238. The following list contains the common verbs of 
the fourth conjugation, which form the perfect or perfect 
participle stem, or both, irregularly : — 



( amicm) . . #7 

-< . _ >■ amictus, clotlie. 

( amixi \ 



a-perio aperui apertus, open. 

ad-sentior adsensus sum adsensus, assent. 

com-perio comperi compertus, find. 



\Q 


INFLECTION. 


eo 


1V1 


itum, go. 


ex-perior 


expertus sum 


expertus, try. 


farcio 


farsi 


\ f arctus, j M ' 


fulcio 


fulsi 


fultus, prop up. 


haurio 


hausi 


haustus, draw, hausurus, 

( mensus, ) 

\ - ^ r measure. 

( mentitus, ) 


metior 


mensus sum 


operio 


operui 


opertus, cover. 


op-perior 


oppertus sum 


(oppertus, i 

1 _, y wait for. 

( opperitus, j * 


ordior 


orsus sum 


orsus, begin. 


orior * 


ortus sum 


ortus, rise, oriturus. 


queo 


qui vi 


quitus, can. 


tio n m r\ 




rausum, be hoarse. 
repertus, find. 


raucio 
re-perio 


repperi 


saepio 


saepsi 
( salui ~\ 
< salivi > 
(. salii ) 


saeptus, hedge in. 


salio 


leap. 










( sancitus, "> 


sancio 


sanxi 


(sanctus, ) *^* 


sarcio 


sarsi 


sartus, patch. 


sarrio 


( sarrivi ") 
(sarrui ) 


sarritus, hoe. 






sentio 


sens! 


sensus, feel. 


sepelio 


sepelivi 


sepultus, bury. 


venio 


veni 


ventum, come. 


vincio 


vinxi 


vinctus, bind. 



IRREGULAR VERBS (Verba anomala) . 
239. A few verbs take no thematic vowel in their 
present stems, but add the endings directly to the root, 
and are therefore called unthematic verbs, or, because 
these forms differ from those of the regular conjugations, 
irregular verbs. 



* See 227, a. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



DARE. 



137 



240. (1.) Originally all verbs with vowel roots were 
unthematic, but all except dare, to give, passed over into 
the thematic conjugation.* 

(2.) Several verbs with consonant roots remained un- 
thematic in most of the forms from the present stem. 
They are esse, be ; velle, wish ; nolle, be unwilling ; 
malle, prefer ; ferre, bring ; fieri, become ; edere, eat. 

The unthematic verbs are conjugated as follows : — 

241. dare, to give. 

Principal Parts. 



PRES. INDIC. PRES. 


INFIN. PERF. INDIC. 


PERF. PART. 


do t dare dedi 


datus 




Indicative. 




PRESENT. 


IMPERFECT. 


FUTURE. 


dot 


dabam 


dabo 


das 


dabas 


dabis 


dat 


dabat 


dabit 


damus 


dabamus 


dabimus 


datis 


dabatis 


dabitis 


dant 


dabant 


dabunt 


PERFECT. 


PLUPERFECT. 


FUTURE PERF. 


dedi, etc. 


dederam, etc. 
Subjunctive. 


dedero, etc. 


PRESENT. 


IMPERFECT. 


dem demus 


darem 


daremus 


des detis 


dares 


daretis 


det dent 


daret 


darent 


PERFECT. 


PLUPERFECT. 


dederim, etc. 


dedissem, etc. 



* Such are farl, speak ; flare, blow ; nare, swim ; stare, stand ; flere, 
weep ; nere, spin ; -plere, fill (used only in compounds) ; clre, call ; Ire, go ; 
quire, be able; scire, know. (Cf. also 230, d, 1.) 

t This form is, of course, thematic. 



138 INFLECTION. 

Imperative, 
present. future. 

da # date dato datSte 

dat5 danto 

Infinitive. 

PRESENT. PERFECT. FUTURE. 

dare dedisse daturus (-a, -urn) esse 

Participles. 
Pres. dans, dantis Fut. daturus (-a, -um) 

Gerund. Supine. 

dandl, etc. datum, datu. 

a. The passive is regular, except that the first person of the 
present indicative and subjunctive do not occur. 

b. Thus are conjugated the four-syllabled compounds, as 
circu??idare, venumdare, etc. The three-syllabled compounds 
— dedere, edere, prodere, reddere, tradere, vendere — are reg- 
ular thematic verbs of the third conjugation. So also the follow- 
ing verbs, which are not compounds of do, dare, but of another 
do (corresponding to the Greek rt^/xt), which means put, set : 
abdere, addere, condere, abscondere, credere, indere, obdere, per- 
dere, subdere. 

c. Early forms of the present subjunctive occur as follows : 
duas, duim, duis, duit, duint. So perduim, perduis, perduit, 
perduint ; creduam, creduas, creduat, creduis, creduint.^ 

For esse, see 215. 

242. velle, be willing, wish. 





Principal Parts. 




PRES. indic. 


PRES. INFLN. 


PERF. INDIC. 


volo 


velle 


volui 



* This form is, of course, thematic. 

t For a few other rare forms, see any large grammar. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. — VELLE. — NOLLE. 



139 





PRESENT. 


vol5 


volumus 


VIS 


voltis (vultis) 


volt (vult) 


volunt 


IMPERFECT. 


FUTURE. PERFECT. 


volebam, etc. 


volam, etc. volui, etc. 


PLUPERFECT. 


FUTURE PERFECT. 


volueram, etc. 


voluero, etc. 



Subjunctive. 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 

velim velimus vellem vellemus 

veils velitis velles velletis 

velit velint vellet vellent 



PERFECT. 

voluerim, etc. 



PLUPERFECT. 

voluissem, etc. 



Infinitives. Participle. 

Pres. velle volens 

Perf. voluisse 

a. Si vis, if you please, is often contracted to sis. 
243. nolle Qne-velle), be unwilling. 
Principal Parts, 
pres. indic. pres. inftn. perf. indic. 

nolo nolle nolui 



nolo 
non vis 



Indicative. 

PRESENT. 

nolumus 

non voltis (non vultis) 



non volt (non vult) nolunt 



140 






INFLECTION. 


IMPERFECT. 


FUTURE. PERECT. 


nolebam, etc. 


nSlam, etc. nolui, etc. 


PLUPERFECT. 


FUTURE PERFECT. 


nolueram, etc. 


noluero, etc. 




Subjunctive. 


PRESENT. 


IMPERFECT. 


nolim nolimus nollem nollemus 


nolis nolitis 


nolles nolletis 


nolit nolint 


nollet nollent 


PERFECT. 


PLUPERFECT. 


noluerim, etc. 


noluissem, etc. 



Imperative. 

present. future. 

noli n5lite nolito nolitote 

nolito 



Infinitives. Participle. 

Pres. nolle nolens 

Perf. noluisse 

a. Nevis and rievolt occur in Plautus. 

244. malle (mage-velle), prefer. 
Principal Parts. 



pres. indic. 


PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. 


mal5 


malle malui 




Indicative. 




PRESENT. 


maL5 


malumus 


mavis 


mavoltis (mavultis) 



mavolt (mavult) 



malunt 



IRREGULAR VERBS. — MALLE. — FEEEE. 



141 



IMPERFECT. 

malebam, etc. 

PLUPERFECT. 

maLueram, etc. 



PRESENT. 

malim malimus 

malls malitis 

malit malint 



FUTURE. 

malam, etc. 



PERFECT. 

malul, etc. 



FUTURE PERFECT. 

maluero, etc. 

Subjunctive. 

imperfect. 
maLlem mallemus 
malles malletis 

mallet mallent 



PERFECT. 

maluerim, etc. 



PLUPERFECT. 

maluissem, etc. 



Infinitives. 
Pres. malle 
Perf. maluisse 

a. Mavolo, mavolunt, mavolet, rridvelim, mavelis, mavelit, 
mavellem, occur in Plautus. 

245. ferre, bring. 





ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 




Principal Parts. 


Pres. 


Ind. fero feror 


Pres. 


Inf. ferre ferri 


Perf. 


Ind. tull* latus* sum 




Indicative. 




present. 


fero 


ferimus feror ferimur 


fers 


fertis ferris (-re) feriminl 


fert 


ferunt fertur feruntur 



* These forms are from other roots : tull, from Vtol, tollo ; latus, for 
tldtus, from "\ltla. 



142 



INFLECTION. 



Imperfect ferebam, etc. 

Future feram, etc. 

Perfect tull, etc. 

Pluperfect tuleram, etc. 

Fut. Perf. tulero, etc. 



Subjunctive. 



Pres. feram, etc. 
Imp. ferrem, etc. 
Perf. tulerim, etc. 
Plu. tulissem, etc. 



Imperative, 
present. 



ferebar, etc. 
ferar, etc. 
latus sum, etc. 
latus eram, etc. 
latus ero, etc. 



ferar, etc. 
ferrer, etc. 
latus sim, etc. 
latus essem, etc. 



fer 



ferte 



ferre 



ferimini 



FUTURE. 



ferto 
fert5 



fertote 
feruntS 



fertor 
fertor 



feruntor 



Infinitives. 

Pres. ferre 

Perf. tulisse 

Fut. laturus (-a, -una) esse 

Participles. 
Pres. ferens 
Perf. 
Future, laturus, -a, -urn 

Gerund. 
ferendi, etc. 

Supine. [ 

latum 
latu 



ferri 

latus (-a, -urn) esse 

latum iri 



latus (-a, -urn) 

Gerundive. 
ferendus (-a,-um) 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



143 



a. Reduplicated forms from the perfect stem, as tetuli, etc., 
are found in the comic writers. 

246. fieri, become. (It is also used as the passive of 
facio, do, make.) 

Principal Parts. 



PRES. INDIC. 




PRES. INFEST. 


PERF. LNDIC. 


fio 




fieri 
Indicative. 

PRESENT. 


factus sum 




fio 




fimus 




fis 




fitis 




fit 




fiunt 


IMPERFECT. 




FUTURE. 


PERFECT. 


fiebam, etc. 




flam, etc. 


factus sum, etc. 


PLUPERFECT. 




FUTURE PERFECT. 


factus eram, etc 




factus ero, etc. 






Subjunctive. 





PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. 

flam, etc. fierem, etc. factus sim, etc. factus essem, etc. 







Imperative. 






Present fi 




fite 




iNFLNITrVES. 




Participle, 


Pres. 


fieri 






Perf. 


factus (-a, -um) esse 


factum 



Fut. factum iri 

Gerundive. 
f aciendus (-a, -um) 



Supine. 
factu 



144 INFLECTION. 

a. Compounds of facio which retain the full form have fid in 
the passive ; as, calefacio, calefid ; benefacio, beneflo. Confit, 
defit, and inftt also occur, but compounds with prepositions 
regularly form their own passives ; as, cd?ificw, conficior ; per- 
ficio, perficior, 

247. edere, eat. 

Principal Parts. 
edo esse or edere edi esum 

Indicative. 

present. 

edo edimus 

es or edis * editis or estis 

est or edit edunt 

imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, fut. perf. 
edebam, etc. edam, etc. edi, etc. ederam, etc. edero, etc. 



Subjunctive. 


present. 


imperfect. 


edam or edim 


ederem or essem 


edas " edis 


ederes " esses 


edat " edit 


ederet " esset 


edamus " edimus 


ederemus " essemus 


edatis " editis 


ederetis " essetis 


edant " edint 


ederent " essent 


PERFECT. 


PLUPERFECT. 


ederim, etc. 


edissem, etc. 


Imperative. 


present. 


FUTURE. 


es or ede 


edito or esto 



edito " est5 
edite " este editote " estate 

edunto 

* The short forms occur in the same places in which the forms of sum 
begin with es. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 145 

Infinitives. Participle. 

Pres. esse or edere 
Perf. edisse 
Fut. esurus (-a, -urn) esse esurus (-a, -urn) 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
Pres. Ind. editur or estur 
Imp. Subj. ederetur " essetur 
a. Ambedo has participles ambedens and ambesus. 
Comedo has comesus, comesurus, and rare comestus ; also, 
comedim, comedis, comedit. 

Adedo and exedo have adesus and exesus. 

248. Ire, go (Vi), also presents some of the irregu- 
larities of unthematic verbs. 







Principal Parts. 




PRES. IND. 




PRES. INFIN. PERF. IND. 


PERF. PART. 


eo 


e5 

is 
it 


ire 

Indicative, 
present. 


Ivi (ii) 

imus 

itis 

eunt 


itum 


1PERF. 


FUT. 


PERF. 


PLUPERF. 


FUT. PERF. 



ibam, etc. Ibo, etc. Ivi (ii), etc. Iveram, etc. Iverd, etc. 

Subjunctive. 

present. imperf. perf. pluperf. 

earn, eas, etc. irem, etc. iverim, etc. Ivissem, etc. 

Imperative, 
present. future. 

I ite Ito It5te 

Ito eunto 



146 INFLECTION. 

Infinitives. Participles. 

Pres. Ire iens (euntis, etc.) 
Perf. ivisse 

Fut. iturus (-a, -urn) esse itums (-a, -urn) 

Gerund. 
eundl, etc. 

a. In compounds, future forms in ea?n, ies, iet, etc., occasion- 
ally occur ; and the tenses from the perfect stem more com- 
monly omit the v ; as, abii, redieram, etc. 

b. Istis, issem, and isse, occur for wistis, ivissem, Ivisse. 
(Cf. 228, a.) 

DEFECTIVE VERBS (Verba defectwa). 

249. The following verbs are used in only a few forms, 
and are therefore called defective verbs : — 

(1.) odi, hate, though a perfect form, has a present 
meaning. It occurs in the following forms : — 

Indicative. 
Perf. 5di or 5sus sum, I hate, etc. 

Plup. oderam, I hated, etc. 

Fut. Perf. Sdero, I shall hate, etc. 

Subjunctive. 
Perf. oderim, etc. Plup. odissem, etc. 

Infinitives. Participles. 

Perf. odisse osus (-a, -urn) {active sense) 

Fut. osurus (-a, -urn) esse osurus (-a, -um) 

a. Odivit occurs (M. Anton, in Cic, Phil., xiii., §42). 

(2.) memini, remember, is also a perfect form with a 
present meaning, and has — 

Indicative. 
Perf. memini, I remember, etc. 

Plup. memineram, I remembered, etc. 

Fut. Perf. meminero, I shall remember, etc. 



DEFECTIVE VEEBS. 147 

Subjunctive. 
Perf. meminerim, etc. Plup. meminissem, etc. 

Imperative. 
Fut. memento mementote 

Infinitive. 
meminisse 

(8.) coepi, have begun, has — 

Indicative. 
Perf. coepi, etc. Plup. coeperam, etc. Fut. Perf. coeperS, etc. 

Subjunctive. 
Perf. coeperim, etc. Plup. coepissem, etc. 

Infinitives. Participles. 

Perf. coepisse coeptus (-a, -urn) 

Fut. coepttirus (-a, -urn) esse coepturus (-a, -urn) 

a. With a passive infinitive the deponent forms are used : 
coeptus est, erat, etc. 

(4.) aio, say, has — 

Indicative, 
present. imperfect. 

aio aiebam aiebamus 

ais aiebas aiebatis 

ait aiunt aiebat aiebant 

Subjunctive, 
present. 
aias aiat aiant 

Imperative. Participle. 

ai aiens 

a. The comic writers have the imperfect forms aibas, aibat, 
aibant, and treat them as dissyllables. 



148 



INFLECTION. 



(5.) inquam, say, has — 

Indicative. 
Pres. inquam -quis -quit -quimus -quitis -quiunt 



Imp. 


inquiebat 
inquibat 


inquiebant 


Fiit. inquies 


inquiet 




Perf. inquisti inquit 






Subjunctive. 




Pres. inquias inquiat inquiatis inquiant 




Imperative. 






inque 






inquito 




(6.) fan, to speak, 


has — 
Indicative. 




Pres. 




fatur 


Fut. fabor 


fabitur 


Perf. 




fatus est 


Plup. fatus eram 






Imperative. 






fare 




Infinitive. 




Participles. 


far! (farier) 




fans 

fatus (-a, -um) 


Gerund. 




Gerundive. 


Gen. fandi 




fandus, etc. 


Abl. fand.5 


Supine. 
fatu 





(7.) queo, can, has — 

Indicative. 

Pres. queo quis quit quimus quitis queunt 

Imp. quibam quibat quibant 

Fut. quibo quibunt 

Perf. quivi quivit quiverunt 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



149 



Subjunctive. 
Pres. queam, etc. 

Imp. qulrem quiret quirent 

Perf. quiverit 

Plup. quissent 

Infinitives. Participle. 

Pres. quire quiens (queuntis, etc.) 

Perf. quivisse (quisse) 

(8.) nequeo, cannot, has — 

Indicative. 
Pres. nequeS nonquis nequit -qulmus -quitis -queunt 
Imp. nequlbam -quibat nequibant 

Fut. nequibunt 

Perf. nequivl -quivisti -qutvit nequiverunt 

Subjunctive. 
Pres. nequeam, etc. 
Imp. nequirem, etc. 
Plup. nequisset 

Inflnitives. Participle. 

Pres. nequire nequiens (nequeuntis, etc.) 

Perf. nequivisse 

a. Passive forms of these two verbs are occasionally found 

with a passive infinitive, as with coepi (see above). So qmtur, 

quedtur, queantur, quitus, etc., neqifitur and nequitum est, etc. 

Note. It will be seen that queo and nequeo are conjugated just like eo. 

(9.) quaeso, beg, has — 
Ind. Pres. quaeso quaesit quaesumus 

Inf. Pres. quaesere 

(10.) Isolated forms are — 
a. Imperative have, havete, be well, blessed, etc. 
havet5 
Infinitive havere 



150 INFLECTION. 

b. Ind. Pres. salveo, I am well. 

" Fut. salvebis 
Imper. salve, salvete, be well, hail ! 

salveto 
Infin. salvere 

c. Imper. cedo, cette, say, let us have, etc. 

d. Ind. Pres. confit, defit, defiunt, infit, infiunt, 

accomplish. fail. begin. 

" Fut. c5nfiet defiet 
Subj. Pres. c5nfiat defiat interfiat (Lucr.) 

Imper. confieret 

Infin. confieri defieri effierl, interfieri 

(Plautus) 

e. Ind. Pres. ovat, have an ovation.* 
Subj. Pres. ovet 

" Imp. ovaret 
Participle ovans ovatus ovaturus 
Gerund ovandi 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

250. Impersonal verbs are such as are used only in 
the third person singular and without a personal subject. 
The most common are the following : — 

a. Ten verbs denoting mental or moral states : — 
decet, it is proper, becoming. oportet, ought. 
libet, it is pleasant. piget, be disgusted. 

licet, I, you, he, etc., may. paenitet. repent. 

liquet, it is clear. pudet, be ashamed. 

miser et, pity. taedet, be weary of. 

* An ovation among the Romans was a sort of lesser "triumph," in 
•which the general rode on horsehaek instead of in a chariot, as in the 
regular ' ' triumph. ' ' 



PARTICLES. 151 

b. Verbs denoting the state of the weather : — 
fidget, } lapidat, it rains stones. 
fulgurat, >it lightens. ningit, it snows. 
fulminat, ) pluit, it rains. 

gelat, it freezes. tonat, it thunders. 

grandinat, it hails. vesperascit, ) 

_ . i evening ap- 

lucescit, ) ;t liht . advesperascit,)- ^ 

illucescit, ) mvesperasat, ) 

c. Also the following : — 

accidit, it happens. interest, it concerns. 

constat, it is accepted, be- iuvat, it delights. 

lieved. praestat, it is better. 

contingit, it happens favor- placet, it pleases. 

ably. refert, it concerns. 

convenit, it is agreed upon, restat, it remains. 
displicet, it displeases. 

PARTICLES. 

Note. Adverbs, so far as they are capable of inflection, have been 
treated under the Comparison of Adjectives (174-176). Their further 
treatment, as well as that of prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, 
belongs partly under Syntax, but mostly under Word-Formation, and will 
be found there. 

For adverbs (derivation), see 292, 293 ; — (syntax), see 557. 

For prepositions (in composition), see 301 ff. 

For " (syntax), see 428 ff., and 558 ff. 

For conjunctions, see 562 ff. 

For interjections, see 583. 

WORD-FORMATION (Derwatio verborum). 

251. (1.) Words are either simple (simplicia) or com- 
pound (composita). 

(2.) Simple words are such as contain only one com- 
plete stem ; as, ludu-s, game ; reg-o, rule ; naturali-s, nat- 
ural. 

(3.) Compound words are such as contain two or more 
complete stems ; as, magnanimus (rnagno- -\- animo-'), 
high-souled ; intellegb (inter -f- lego), understand. 



152 WORD-FORMATION. 

252. (1.) Simple words are divided into primitives 
Qprlmitwa) and derivatives (derivdta). 

(2.) Primitive words are such as are formed directly 
from roots ; as, rex, king, Wreg ; cavus, hollow, Wcav ; 
died, say, */dic. 

(3.) Derivative words are such as are formed from 
noun, adjective, or verb stems ; as, culpare, to blame, 
from culpa (stem culpa-*) ; felicitas, happiness, from 
fellx (stem fellc-) ; memorabilia, remarkable, from me- 
morare (stem memora-). 

a. Words derived from noun or adjective stems are called 
denominatives (denominativ a) ; those from verb stems are 
called verbals (verbalia). 

Strong and Weak Forms of Roots. 

253. Many roots appear in two forms, a strong form 
and a weak form. Thus : — 

Weak Form. Strong Form. 

teg-ere, to cover. tog-a, a toga. 

iug-ere, to flee. fug-7, I have fled. 

a. There are a few instances of triple root forms. Thus : 
fid-es, faithfulness, fld-us, f aithf ul, foed-us, treaty. Cf. do-num y 
gift, with das and da-tus. 

Simple Words. 

Note. .The origin of various Latin words is very obscure. They can- 
not be referred to any known roots. It is, of course, only the well estab- 
lished, common formations that can profitably be treated here. 

Words without Suffixes. 

254. A few nouns and adjectives are formed without 
any suffix,* the root itself serving as a stem. Thus: — 

cor, n., heart ; Wcord pes, m., foot ; Vped 

lux, f., light; Wluc trux (adj.), savage; Wtruc 

a. The unthematic verbs (see 239 fr\) also have no suffixes. 

b. A very few roots are reduplicated ; as, mar-mor, n., mar- 
ble ; tur-tur, m., turtle-dove. 

* For the definition of " suffix," see 56. 



WORDS WITH SUFFIXES. 



153 



Words with Suffixes. 
255. The common suffixes as they appear in Latin 
words are as follows : — 
(1.) Forming vowel stems. 



o-, a-, 


io-, ia,-, 




ro-, ra- (lo-, 


la-, ri-, li-) 


i- 


mo-, ma- 


to-, ta- (so-, 


sa-) 


u- 


no-, na- 


ti- (si-) 




bo-, ba- 


ni- 


tu- (su-) 




co-, ca- 


nu- 


tro-, tra-, tri- (cf. tr-, below) 


do-, da- 




vo-, va- (uo 


-, ua-) 


(2.) Forming consonant stems. 




Suffix. Nom. Sing. 


Suffix. 


Nom. Sing. 


r is- es 


ent- 


ens 


J er- us; er (is) 


( min- 


men 


| or- us, ur ; or (os) 


(mon- 


mo 


I 5r- os, or 


(tr- 


ter (cf. tr-, 


( in- en; o 


-jtor- 


tor above) 


1 on- 


5 




(sor- 


sor 



a. Suffixes are called primary when applied directly to 
roots to form the stems of primitive words, secondary or 
derivative when applied to simple stems to make the stems of 
derivative words. 

Note. To help the pupil in understanding- the growth of words, his at- 
tention should be called to groups like the following : — 

-v/rub 



rub-us, m., a bramble bush. 

[rubi-cus.*] 

Rubic-o, the Rubicon (Red River). 

rubicun-dus, ruddy. 

rubicundu-lus, somewhat ruddy. 



rub-e-r, red, ruddy. 
Hubr-ius, a man's name. 
rubrl-ca, f., red earth. 
rubric-are, to color red. 
Rubrlcd-tus, a river in Spain. 



os (oris), n., mouth. 

or-dre, to plead. 

ord-tor, m., pleader, orator. 

ordtor-ius, belonging to an orator. 

* The form rubicus does not itself occur, but is presupposed by Rubico in 
conjunction with words like bellicus and modicus, from bellurn and modus. 



154 



WORD-FOEMATION. 



Nouns and Adjectives. 
256. As examples of primitive nouns and adjectives 
formed from roots with the foregoing suffixes may be 
given the following : — 



(1.) Vowel stems : — 

scrib-a, m., a scribe 

lud-us, m., play 

cav-us, -a, -um, hollow 

ac<-us* f., needle 

mor-bus, m., disease 

pau-ci, -ae, -a, few 

gen-ius, m., guardian spirit 

fa-ma, f., report 

pug-nus, m., fist 

mdg-nus, -a, -um, great 

lii-na, f., moon 

pa-nis, m., bread 

rub-e-r, -ra, -rum, red 

sel-la, f., seat 

alAus, -a, -um, high 

vec-tis, m., lever 

fruc-tus, m., fruit 

casus, m., fall 

cor-vos, m., raven 

ar-vom, n., ploughed field 

eq-uus, m., horse 
(2.) Consonant stems : — 

nubes,f genitive nflb-is, f., cloud 



*/scrlb -f- a- 

Wlud -f- o- 

^/cav -j- o- and Or 

\/ac -f- u- 

W Trior -j- bo- 

^/pau -\- co- and car 

s/gen -j- io- 

\ffa -\- ma- 

Wpug -\- no- 

\fmag -\- no- and ncu- 

tyluc -\- na- 

typa -J- ni- 

Wrub -j- to- and rar 

"Vsed -\~ la- 

Wal -\- to- and tb> 

\/vec -J- ti- 

Wfrug -j- £%- 

Wcad -|- sw- 

V cor -f- vo- 

s/ar -\- vo- 

Weq -\- uo- 



* The primitive adjectives formed with the suffix u- all afterwards 
received an i and passed over into the third declension. Thus : — 

ten-u-is, thin */ten 

ping-u-is, fat \/ping 

sud-v-is (for sudd-u-is), sweet ^/sudd 

le-v-is (for leg-u-is) , light */leg 

t Cf. 109. 



genus, 


a 


nemus> 


a 


fulgor, 


a 


cardo, 


u 


virgo, 


u 


nomen, 


u 


sermo, 


a 


pater, 


a 


dator, 


a 



NOUNS IN -LUS, -LA, -LUM. 155 

later, genitive lat-er-is, m., brick. 
gen-er-is, n., birth. 
nem-or-is, n., grove. 
fulg-or-is, m., flash, gleam. 
card-in-is, m., hinge. 
virg-in-is, f., maiden. 
no-min-is, n., name. 
ser-mdn-is, m., speech. 
pa-tr-is, m., father. 
da-tor-is, m., giver. 

Nouns (and Adjectives) in -lus, -la, -lum. 

257. The suffixes lo-, la-, form a series of nouns and a 
few adjectives from primitive o- stems, the o regularly 
becoming u before the 1 of the suffix. Thus : — 

anu-lus, m., ring. iacu-lum, n. ? javelin. 

ocu-lus, m., eye. cingu-lum, n., girdle. 

rabu-la, m., pettifogger. iugu-lum, n., collar-bone. 

tegu-la, f., tile. garru-lus, -a, -um, talkative. 

Note. Some of these words seem to have been formed from primitives 
once actually in use, but early supplanted by their derivatives, others to 
have been built upon the same pattern from roots or stems from which no 
corresponding 1 primitive was ever used. This second process came about 
as follows : There are a few words, like speculum, n., mirror, and figulus, 
m., potter, which seem to have been made from u- stems rather than O- 
stems. Having- words like these and others like anulus (from the stem 
ano- -f- the suffix lo-), the Romans confounded the ending of the stem 
with the suffix and transferred -ulus, as a new ending, to other kinds of 
stems (or roots serving as stems). So in English, having inherited from 
Latin words like " portable," in which the " a " belongs to the stem, we 
transfer this "a" with the ending and form "bearable" from "bear." 
This process is called formation by analogy. It is often impossible to 
tell whether a given Latin word was formed from a real primitive which 
afterwards became obsolete, or whether it simply grew by analogy. 

258. (1.) The same suffixes lo-, la- (ro, ra-), added 
to a series of stems (mostly obsolete) in bo- and co-, be- 
came fused with these syllables into the endings -bulum, 
-culum, -brum, -crura. 



156 WORD-FORMATION. 

(2.) The endings -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, to 
which for convenience may be added -trum, form neuter 
nouns denoting means or instrument. Thus : — 

stcu-~bulum, stall cf. stare, to stand Wsta. 

turi-bulum, censer " tus (tiiris), frankincense. 

voca-bulum, word " vocare, to call, name. 

po-culum, cup " potare, to drink. 

vehi-culum, vehicle " vehere, to draw. 

peri-culum, trial, danger " ex-periri, to try. 

cri-brum, sieve " cernere, to sift, distinguish. 

de-lu-brum, shrine " luere, to wash, atone for. 

candela-brum, candlestick " candere, shine, candela, can- 
dle. 

sepul-crum, tomb " sepellre, to bury. 

simula-crum, image " simulwe, make like, pre- 

tend. 

ras-trum, rake Wrad -\- tro- (primary). 

ara-trum, plough stem of arare -|- tro- (second- 

ary). 
fere-tnim, bier cf . ferre, to carry. 

Diminutives. 

259. The same suffixes lo-, la-, came often to have a 
diminutive force,* forming a large number of nouns 
usually of the same gender as their primitives. They also 
form a few diminutive adjectives. Thus : — 

(1.) From stems in a- or o-, the stem vowel appearing 
as u generally, but as o after e, i, and v. Thus : — 

nidu-lus, a little nest, from nidus, 
cenu-la " cena, dinner. 

oppidu-lum " oppidtcm, town. 

alveo-lus " alveus, a hollow. 

filio-lus " films, son. 

* Compare the English "bookish" and "bluish," "sunny" and 
"sonny." 



DIMINUTIVES. 157 

clavo-lus * from clavos, a nail. 

parvo-lus, -a, -um " parvos, small. 

(2.) From dental and palatal stems, with a u added 
by analogy. Thus : — 

aetat-u-la from aetas, a period of life. 
reg-u-lus " rex, king. 

voc-u-la " voce, voice. 

capit-u-lum " caput, Head. 
(3.) If a liquid precedes the stem vowel of the primi- 
tive (a or o) that vowel is dropped and the liquid assimi- 
lated, sometimes with slight further change. Thus : — 
agellus (for ager-u-lus) from ager, field. 



patella 


a 


patera, saucer. 


capella 


t; 


capra, goat. 


puella 


a 


puera, girl. 


(but puer-u-lus) 


it 


puer, boy. 


asellus 


a 


asinus, ass. 


pidvilliis 


a 


pulvinus, cushion, 


corolla 


a 


corona, wreath. 


columella 


a 


columna, pillar. 


sigilla (n. pi.) 


a 


signum, sign. 


bacillum 


a 


baculum, staff. 


tabella 


it 


tabula, tablet. 


ocellus 


a 


oculus, eye. 


And by analogy 






lapillus 


a 


lapis, stone. 


codicillus 


a 


codex, a writing 



nally, bark). 
(4.) In the case of diminutives from other consonant 
stems and from e-, u-, and i- stems, the endings have the 
forms, -cuius, -cula, -culum.f Thus : — 
sermun-culus from sermo, speech. 

* The O was afterwards weakened to u, of course, as in the primitives. 
Hence, clavulus, parvulus, etc. 

t In some cases because an intervening stem in CO- has disappeared, in 
others through growth by analogy. 



158 WORD-FORilATION. 

rumus-cidus from rumor, report. 
arbus-cula u arbor, tree. 

bu-cula " bos, cow. 

flos-culus " flds, flower. 

mater-cula " mater, mother. 

cor-culum " co?% heart. 

die-cula " c/i'es, day. 

canl-cula " canis, dog. 

arti-cidus " artus, limb. 

corni-culum " cornu, horn, 

a. Ranun-culus, from ra««, frog; furun-culus, from /i7r, 
thief ; and conventi-culum, from conventus, meeting, are also 
found. 

5. A few diminutives are further formations, as : — 

aculeus from o£fts, needle [acw -f" 

Zo-f- zo-]. 
homuncio (beside homunculus) " homo, man [liomon 

-\- CO -\- W -\- 07Jr]» 

c. There are also a few double formations ; as : — - 
asellulus asellus asinus. 

Adjectives ix -zjs axd -i?is. 

260. The same suffixes (lo-, la-, ro-, ra-) with the vowel 
weakened and thus appearing as li- *, ri-, form a series of 
adjectives denoting various ways of " belonging to." 
Thus : — 

humi-lis, low from humus,^ ground. 

agidis, nimble " an obsolete agus.% 

nobidis. famous as if from nobus. 

■ utidis, useful " " " utus. 

naturadis, natural from riatura. 

* There was a marked tendency of Latin adjectives to pass into i- stem 
forms and follow the third declension. Cf. the double forms in 155, 7, 
and the forms in 256, 1, footnote. 

t For the weakening of the stem vowel O of the primitive to i in the 
derivative, see 59. 

| The existence of a form agus is shown hy the compound prod-igus 
heside co-dgudum. 



ADJECTIVES IN -LIS, -BIS; -NUS, -NA, -NUM. 159 

luna-ris, of the moon from luna. 

fide-lis, faithful " fides. 

tribU-lis* of the same tribe " tribus. 

hostl-lis, hostile u hostis. 

261. Words like agilis, nobilis, iltilis, came to be re- 
garded as verbals. Then the endings -bilis and -tilis were 
added to verb-stems to make adjectives denoting ten- 
dency (more often passive than active). Thus : — 

ama-bilis, lovable. terri-bllis, terrible. 

fie-bilis, lamentable, tearful. versa-tilis, movable. 

a. Plausi-bilis, worthy of applause, and some others, seem to 
be from noun-stems. 

262. Through the transference of the stem vowel to the 
suffix arose the endings -aris, -alis, -elis, -His, -tilis. 
Thus : — 

milit-aris, military from miles. 

popid-aris, of the people " popidus. 

nav-alis, naval " navis. 

capit-alis, deadly, capital " caput. 

crud-elis, cruel " crudus. 

vir-ilis, manly " vir. 

ped-ulis, of the feet " pes. 

a. Such adjectives were often used as nouns ; as, aed-ilis, 
m., an aedile ; ovile, n., a sheep-fold ; and, dropping the final 
vowel, pugil, m., boxer ; a?iimal, n., living thing. 

Adjectives in -nus, -na, -num. 

263. The suffixes no-, na-, form another series of ad- 
jectives denoting " belonging to." Thus : — 

mag-nusrf great from V wa^ + no- (primary). 

pater-nus, of a father " pater, 
fagi-nus, beechen " fagus. 

* The long- quantity of the penultimate u, i, or o, in such derivatives has 
never been satisfactorily explained. 

t This suffix was originally participial. 



160 WOED-FORMATION. 

Moma-nus, Roman from Roma, 

colli-nus, hilly " collis. 

marl-nus, of the sea " mare. 

264. The suffixes no-, na-, form many adjectives of 
TIME. Thus : — 

hodier-mis, to-day's cf. hodie. 

diur-nus, of the day " dies. 

hester-nus, yesterday's " heri. 

crasti-nus, to-morrow's " eras. 

aeter-nus, everlasting " aevom. 

diuti-nus, > . . . ,,-,.- 

,._, y long-continued " diu. 

diutur-nus, ) ° 

matuti-nus, of the morning " matuta. 

vesperti-nus, of the evening " vesper. 

265. Through the transference of stem vowels to the 
suffix -arose the endings -anus, -enus, -inus. Thus: — 

mont-anus, mountainous from mons. 

Gracch-anus, of Gracchus. 

ser-enus, calm. 

terr-enus, earthy " terra. 

div-mus, god-like " divos. 

vic-inus, neighboring " vieus. 

a. With these adjectives compare nouns like membr-ana, 
har-ena, reg-lna, pistr-inum, patr-onus, ann-ona, fort-una. 

b. The distributive numerals are also formed in -nus ; as, 
bini, serii, etc. (See 157, 158.) 

Adjectives in -cus, -ca, -cum. 

266. Another series of adjectives is formed with the 
suffixes co-, ca-, which added to different kinds of stems 
give the endings -acus , -Icus, ucus, -icus, -aticus. Thus : — 

pau-cus, few Wpav. 

belli-cus, warlike from bellum, 

civi-cus, of a citizen " clvis. 



r us, - 


IA, -IUM. 


from Gallus. 


cf. 


pudor. 


a 


cadere. 


from pater. 


u 


venatus. 


cf. 


jluvius. 



ADJECTIVES IN -CUS, -CA, -CUM; -IUS, -IA, -IUM. 1G1 

Galli-cus, Gallic 
op-acus, shady. 
pud-wus, modest 
cad-ucus, ready to fall 
patr-icics, of a father 
venati-cus, belonging to hunting 
fluvi-aticus, living in water 
a. Through the Greek come words like — 

JSocraticus, of Socrates. 

lliacus, of Ilium, Trojan. 

Cori?ithiacus, of Corinth. 

267. A suffix c- with the vowel dropped was added to 
a- stems, and the ending -ax was then transferred to other 
stems, the adjective thus formed denoting a (generally 
faulty) tendency. Thus: — 

pugn-a-x (pugna-c-is), inclined to fight. 
aud-a-x, bold. 
ten-a-x, tenacious. 

Adjectives in -jus, -ia, -ium. 

268. Another series of adjectives is formed with the 
suffixes io-, ia-, which, added to different kinds of stems, 
give the endings -eus, -cius, -ceus, -icius, -aceus, -icius. 
Such adjectives often denote material. Thus : — 

reg-ius, royal from rex. 

uxor-ius, uxorious 

Ephes-ius, of Ephesus. 

aur-eus (for aure-ius), golden 

triti-ceus, wheaten 

aedili-cius, of an aedile 

patr-icius, patrician 

herba-ceus, grassy 

harundin-aceus, like a reed cf . harundo. 

meretr tortus, meretricious from meretrix. 

tribun-lcius, tribunicial cf . tribunus. 



u 


uxor, wife. 


a 


aurum. 


a 


triticum. 


tt 


aedilis. 


a 


pater (through patricus) 


ii 


herba. 



162 WORD-FORMATION. 

ordtor-ius, of an orator from orator, 

praefor-ius, praetorian " praetor, 

censor-ius, of a censor " censor, 

a. From various Greek proper names are formed adjectives 
in -eus and -aeus. Thus : — 

Epicureus, Epicurean. 
Smyrnaeus, of Smyrna. 

269. The ending -arius * forms adjectives often becom- 
ing nouns and denoting trade or profession (masculine), 
or place (neuter). (Cf. 276, 4.) Thus : — 

sic-drius, m., assassin from slca, dagger. 

advers-urius, -a, -um, opposed " adversus. 

legidn-arius, belonging to the legion " legio. 

argent-drius, m., banker " argentum. 

ordin-arius, -a, -um, customary " ordo. 

tumultu-drius, -a, -um, hurried " tumultus. 

aer-drium, n., treasury " aes. 

Nouns of Agency. 

270. Nouns of agency are formed from roots or verb 
stems with the suffixes tor-, sor-, masc, trie-, fern. 
Thus : — 

da-tor, giver from V da -j- tor- (primary) ; cf . dare, 

ord-tor, pleader, orator " stem ord- -\- tor- (secondary) ; cf. 

ordre. 
sud-sor, adviser " Wsudd- -J- sor- (primary) ; cf. 

suddere. 
vic-trix, conqueress " stem vie- -\- trie- ; cf . vincere. 

vena-trix, huntress " stem vend- -)- trie- ; cf. vendri. 

So via-tor, summoner, through an obsolete vidre / sen-d-tor, 
senator, through an obsolete sendre. 

a. The suffix appears in the form tr- in the following : — 
fra-ter, m., brother (i. e., supporter. Cf. fero). 
ma-ter, i., mother. pa-ter, m., father. 

* This ending seems to consist of ro- -|- io-, added at first to stems 
in a- and then transferred with the a to other stems. (Cf . first example.) 



ABSTKACT NOUNS. 163 

271. The person or (personified) thing which has to do 
with something is indicated by the following suffixes : — 

(1) on. Thus: — 
praec-o (for prae-voc-o), m., herald, Wvoc -\- on (primary). 
centuri-o, m., centurion, from centuria, company of one hundred. 
(2.) ti-, dropping the vowel and forming the nominative 
in -es. Thus : — 

eques (equi-tis), m., horseman. 
ales (ali-tis), c, bird. 
a. Some of these nouns were originally adjectives. So ales, 
(orig.) winged. 

Abstract Nouns. 

272. Abstract nouns have the following endings : — 

-ia (-tia), -ium (-tium), -ies (-ties) 

-ta, -tas, -tus ; -go, -do (-tudo) 

-la, -i5 (-ti5, -si5) ; -tus, -ura (-tura, -sura) 

Note. Abstract nouns denoting 1 quality are formed from noun and ad- 
jective stems ; abstract nouns expressing- action, from verb stems. They 
tend, however, to become more or less concrete, and the abstract meaning 
is not always easy to trace. The English " relation " used for " relative " 
is an example of this tendency of abstracts to become concrete. 

273. Abstract nouns denoting quality are formed 
with the following suffixes : — 

(1.) ia-, fern. ; io-, neuter. Thus : — 

audac-ia, boldness from audax. 

custod-ia, guard " custos. 

mendac-ium, lie " mendax. 

milit-ia, military service " miles. 

hospit-ium, hospitality " Jwspes. 

a. Through forms like militia and hospitium, the endings 
-tia and -tium were transferred to other kinds of stems. 
Thus: — 

amici-tia, friendship from amicus. 

duri-tia, sternness " durus, hard. 

servi-tium, slavery " servos. 



164 



WORD-FORMATION. 



senex. 

civis. 

bonus. 

pius. 

maior (-ins), greater. 

honor, office, honor. 

vir. 

senex. 

servos. 



b. Collateral forms in -ies and -ties in the fifth declension 
appear beside the forms in -ia and -tia of the first. Thus : — 
materies beside materia, material. 
durities " duritia, hardness. 

(2.) ta-, tat-,* tut-.* Thus : — 

iuven-ta, f., youth from iuvenis. 

senec-ta, f., old age 

cwi-tas, I., citizenship, state 

boni-tas, f., goodness 

pie-tots, f., filial affection, loyalty 

maies-tas, f., majesty 

hones-tas, f., respectability 

vir-tus, f., manliness, bravery, virtue 

senec-tus, f., old age 

servi-tus, f., slavery 

a. The stem vowel is dropped in Uber-tas, freedom, from 
liber. 

(3.) gin- and din-.f The latter is especially common 
as an addition to stems in tu-, giving the ending -ttid5. 
Thus : — 

ima-go, f., image. 
ori-go, L, origin 
aeru-go, f ., copper-rust. 
vir-ago, f., virago 
torpe-do, f., sluggishness 
cupi-do, f., desire 
dulce-do, f., sweetness 
magni-tudo, f ., size 
forti-tudo, i., endurance 
habi-tudo,% f., custom. 
vale-tudo, f., health. 



cf . oriri. 

from vir (by analogy), 
cf. torpere. 

" cupere. 

" dulcis. 
from magnus. 

" fortis. 



* These two suffixes consist of ti- (with vowel dropped) added to real 
or supposed stems in ta- and tu-. 

t I. e., go- -fin-, and do- -f- in-. 

t Habitus (gen. -us) is more common, and suggests the type on which the 
words in -tudo were built. 



ABSTRACT NOUNS. 



165 



274. Abstracts denoting the name of an action are 
formed with the following suffixes : — 

(1.) la- (added to verb stems in e-, and the ending -ela 
then transferred to other stems). Thus : — 
cande-la, f ., candle cf. candere. 

tute-la, f., protection " tueri. 

client-ela, f., clientship " cliens. 

quer-ella, f., complaint " queri. 

loqu-ella, f., speech ' 



Thus : — 
cf. legere. 

" inserere, insitus. 
" quaerere. 
" manere, mansum. 
" cogitare, cogitatus. 



cf. movere. 
" comitari. 
" equitare. 
" monere. 
" anhelare. 



(2.) ion- (tion-, sion-).* 
leg-id, f., gathering, legion 
insit-io, f., grafting 
quaest-io, f., investigation 
mans-io, f., a remaining 
cogitat-io, f., reflection 

largit-io, L, bestowal of a largess " largiri, largitum. 
(3.) tu-. Thus: — 
mo-tus, m., motion (contracted for movitus) 
comita-tus, m., retinue 
equita-tus, m., cavalry 
moni-tus, m., warning 
anheli-tus, m., panting 
(4.) ra- (added to stems in u-, and thus producing the 
endings -ura, -tura, -sura). Thus : — 

fig-ura, f., shape cf. finger e. 

pic-tura, f., painting " pingere. 

it-sura, f., use, enjoyment of a thing " uii. 

cen-surarf censorship. 

prae-tura, praetorship. 

Nouns with Various Endings. 
275. Act, means, or result is denoted by the suffixes 

* These two suffixes seem to be made by adding ion- to the stems of 
perfect participles. 

t Often thus coming 1 to denote an office. 



166 WORD-FORMATION. 

rain- (oftener increased to mento-) and monio-,* neuter, 
and monia-,* feminine. Thus : — 

teg-men, \ 

tegu-men, > covering cf. tegere. 

tegi-men, ) 

certa-men, strife, contest " certare. 

frag-mentum, fragment " frangere. 

orna-mentum, ornament " ornare. 

argic-mentum, argument " arguere. 

monu-mentum, memorial " moriere. 

condi-mentum, seasoning " condire. 

testimonium, testimony. 
queri-monia, complaint. 

276. Nouns denoting place are formed with the fol- 
lowing suffixes : to- (eto-), Ina- (trina-, trino-), fli-, 
ario-, torio- (s5rio-). 

(1.) to-, eto- denote the place where something GROWS 

IN ABUNDANCE. Thus : 

arbus-tum, orchard from arbor. 

querc-etum, oak-grove cf. quercus. 
vtn-etum, vineyard " vinum. 

(2.) Ina-, trina-, trino- denote the place where some- 
thing is done. Thus : — 

culAna, kitchen. tdns-trlna, barber-shop. 

sal-lnae, salt mines. pis-trlnum, treadmill. 

a. Nouns in -ina also often denote a science, and many have 
other meanings ; as, discipl-ina, teaching ; medic-ina, medicine ; 
reg-ina, queen ; ru-ina, downfall, etc. 

(3.) Hi- denotes especially the place where animals 

* The origin and development of these suffixes, as of several to he men- 
tioned later (eto-, Ina-, trina-, ivo-, oso-, olento-, bundo-, cundo-, 
etc.), are partly too little known, partly too complicated, for explanation in 
a school grammar. It seems best, therefore, simply to chronicle them as 
they appear. 



PATRONYMICS. 167 

are kept. These nouns are the neuters of adjectives. (See 
260-262.) Thus : — 

ov-ile, sheepfold from ovis. 

cub-lie, chamber. 

(4.) ario- forms nouns which are really the neuter of 
adjectives in -arius. (See 269.) Thus : — 
columb-arium, dove-cote. tepid-arium, room for a warm bath. 

(5.) torio- (sorio-) forms nouns which are really the 
neuter of adjectives in -torius (-sorius). (See 268.) 
Thus : — 

prae-torium, general's tent. dever-sorium, inn. 

Patronymics. 

277. Patronymics (patronymicct), that is, nouns de- 
noting descent, from the name of the father or other an- 
cestor, are formed with the following (Greek) endings : 
-ides (fern, -is), -ides (fern, -eis), -iades (fern, -ias), and 
-ades. 

a. The masculine patronymics (i. e., those in -des) are of the 
first declension; the feminines (i. e., those in -as or -is) are of 
the third. 

b. There are also a few feminines of the first declension in 
-me or -ione. Thus : — 

Nerlrie, daughter of Nereus. 
Acrisione, " " Acrisius. 

278. (1.) -ides (f. -is) is used with names ending in 
-us (except -ius), -or, and -s preceded by a consonant ; 
also with those in^ -on which have the stem vowel short. 
Thus : — 

Priamides from Priamus. 

Tantalis " Tantalus. 

Danais " Danaus. 

Agenorides " Agerior. 

Cecropides " Cecrops. 

Agamemnonides " Agamemnon, stem Agamemri6n. 



168 WORD-FORMATION. 

(2.) -ides (f. -eis) is used with names ending in -eus 
or -cles. Thus : — 

Atrldes from Atreus. 

Heraclldes " Heracles. 

Nereis " Nereus. 

(3.) -iades (f. -ias) is used with names in -ius, with 
many in -es or -5, after the dropping of these endings, 
and with names in -on if the stem vowel is long. Thus : — 

Thestiades ) rril 

mi .. r from Thestius. 

Thestias ) 

Anchisiades " Anchlses. 

Scipiades " Scipio. 

Telamoniades " Telavwn, stem TelaTrion-. 

So also Atlantiades " Atlas. 

(4.) -ades is used with most names in -as or -es 
Thus : — 

Aeneades from Aeneas.'* 

Hippotades " Hippotes. 

Gentile Adjectives. 

279. Gentile adjectives (gentilicia'), that is, words 
denoting the place or country to which some one belongs, 
are formed with the following suffixes : co-, ca- ; io-, ia- ; 
no-, na- ; ti- ; ensi-. Thus : — 

Gallircus, Gallic, a Gaul. Fidenas (-atis), of Fidenae. 

Ephes-ius, Ephesian. Arpinas {-atis), of Arpinum. 

Homa-nus, Roman. Samriis (-Itis), of Samnium. 

Tuscul-anus, Tusculan. Cann-ensis, of Cannae. 

Neapolit-anus, of Naples. Utic-ensis, of Utica. 

Praenest-inus, of Praeneste. Atheni-ensis, of Athens. 

Lat-imis, Latin. Sulmmv-ensis, of Sulmo. 

Amer-inus, of Ameria. Vei-ens, of Veil. 

* The change of vowel from 8 in the primitive to e in the patronymic 
is due to a secondary form, Aeneas. 



PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 169 

Note. No distinct rule can be given as to what sort of stems these 
different endings are used with. But stems in a- usually have -anus, 
those in ia- or io-, Inus, others in o, -icus ; -ius is used mostly with 
Greek words, and consonant stems generally have -ensis. Other forms 
also are used ; as, Afer, African ; Siculus, Sicilian. Cf . also the adjec- 
tives like Smyrnaeus derived through the Greek (268, a). 

Participial Adjectives. 
280. Adjectives with the participial meaning "pro- 
vided with " are formed with the suffixes to-, ta-, which 
added to different kinds of stems give the endings 
-atus, -itus, -utus. Thus : — 
robus-tus, strong from robur. 



hones-tics, 


honorable 


" 


honor. 


toga-tus 




u 


toga, a toga. 


iurri-tus 




a 


turris, tower. 


comu-tus 




a 


cornu, horn. 


aur-atus 




a 


aurum, gold, through aurare. 


cord-atus 




a 


cor, heart, as if through cordare. 


mell-itus 




a 


mel, honey. 


av-iius 




a 


avos {-us), grandfather. 


nas-utus 




a 


nasus, nose. 



Note. Aegrotus, sick, suggests with patronus, annona, etc., a lost series 
of verb stems in 6-. 

281. Adjectives with about the meaning of present par- 
ticiples are formed with the suffixes bundo- and cundo-. 
Thus : — 

fa-cundus, eloquent. mira-bundus, wondering. 

iu-cundus, pleasant. vere-cimdus, modest. 

ira-cundus, wrathful. mori-bundus, dying. 

282. The suffixes mo-, ma-, no-, na-, alone and com- 
bined together, form several adjectives and nouns which 
were originally participles. Thus : — 

al-mus, -a, -um, kindly cf. alere, to raise, nourish. 

fa-ma, f., report " fari, to speak. 

■nus, -a, -um, great. 



170 



WORD-FORMATION. 



som-wus, m., sleep (for sop-nus ; cf. sopire). 

fe-mina, f., woman. 

ter-minus, m., boundary. 

alu-mnus, -a, -um, cherished ; hence, as a noun, foster-child. 

a. The same combined suffix is found in the second person 
plural of passive and deponent verbs, — regi-mini, mone-mirit, 
amaba-miiii, — and in the old imperative forms like horta-mino. 
(See 227, f.) 

Adjectives with Various Exdixgs. 

283. Various adjectives are formed with the suffixes 
do-, da-, uo-, ua-, Ivo-, Iva-. Thus : — 



turbi-duSr disordered 


from ticrba. 


vivi-dus, lively. 




frigi-dus, cold 
avi-dus, greedy. 
herbi-dus, grassy 


cf . frlgus. 
from herba. 


lepri-dus, charming 


cf. lepor. 


annriius, yearly 


from annus. 


vac-uus, \ 

> empty. 
vac-lvus, ) 




nat-ivus, native 


cf. natus. 


aest-ivus, of summer 


" aestas. 


capt-ivus, captive 


" captus. 



284. Another series of adjectives is formed with the 
suffixes bri-, cri-, tri-, the last often denoting place. 
Thus : — 



cele-ber, famous. 
lugu-bris, mournful. 
salu-bris, healthful. 
midie-bris, womanish. 
volu-cer, winded. 



medio-cris, mediocre. 
eques-tris, equestrian (for 

equet-tris). 
campes-tris, level. 
terres-tris, earthy. 



Cf. a] so creber, -bra, -brum, frequent. 

285. Adjectives denoting fullness are formed with 
the suffixes 5so-, olent-, olento. Thus : — 



ADJECTIVES. — VERBS. 171 

glori-dsus from gloria, glory. 



perlcul-osus 

gener-osus 

aestu-osus 

op-ulens * 

vi-olens 

fraud-ulentus 

vin-olentus 



periculum, danger. 
genus, birth. 
aestus, heat, tide. 
[ops'], wealth. 
vis, force. 
fraus, treachery. 
vinum. wine. 



286. Adjectives denoting various relations of NUMBER 
are formed as follows : — 

(1.) Multiplicatives denote how many fold, and end in 
-plex. Thus : — 

simplex, single. qulncuplex, fivefold. 

duplex, double, twofold. centuplex, a hundredfold. 

(2.) Proportionals denote how many times one thing is 
greater than another, and end in -plus. Thus : — 

duphis, twice as great. octuplus, eight times as great. 
(3.) Temporals denote how many years old, and end in 
-imus. Thus : — 

bimus, two years old. quadrwius, four years old. 

Note. Adjectives in -arius, from the distributives, denote the number 
of parts of which a thing consists, but they belong- chiefly to post-classical 
usage. Thus : quaternarius, of four parts. 

Verbs. 

287. -are, -ere, -ere, -ire, were treated by the Romans 
as derivative endings to form many verbs from noun and 
adjective stems. The stem-vowel of the noun or adjective, 
unless u, disappears. Thus : — 

culpare,^ to blame from culpa, fault. 

doriare, to give " donum, gift. 

* O of the suffix weakened to U. 

t The verbs in -are must have started from noun stems in a-, and those 
in -ire from stems in !-, and these endings must then have been transferred 
to other stems by analogy. 



172 WORD-FORMATION. 

lauddre, to praise from laus, praise. 

aestudre, to seethe, boil " aestus, heat. 

albere, to be white " albus, white. 

Ulcere, to shine " lux, light. 

metuere, to fear " metus, fear. 

statuere, to fix " status, position. 

puriire, to punish " poena, punishment. 

servire, to be a slave " servos {-us), slave. 

finire, to end " finis, end. 

custodire, to guard " custos, guard. 

Note. The verbs with consonant stems (third conjugation), and many 
of the short verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations, were in- 
herited by the Romans from the parent language, and these verbs fur- 
nished the pattern for the verbs treated in 287. Such inherited verbs are 
regere, amare, monere, audire. Their development is too complicated to be 
explained in a school grammar. Many of the simple nouns and adjectives 
treated above were of course also inherited already formed from the parent 
language, as can be seen by comparing the corresponding words in Greek 
and Sanskrit. Their growth, however, is much simpler and easier to trace 
than that of the inherited verbs. 

a. The denominatives of the first conjugation are generally 
transitive ; those of the second are almost invariably intransitive. 
Cf. the examples. Those in the third conjugation are all from 
u- stems. 

b. Pairs of verbs are sometimes found, one usually from the 
weak form of a root and intransitive, the other from the strong 
form and transitive (causative verbs, verba causativa). Thus : — 

placere, to please jplacare, to appease. 
sedere, to sit sedare, to settle. 



Frequentative and Intensive Verbs. 

288. (1.) Frequent ati ves (frequentative?,), that is, 
verbs denoting a repetition of the action of their primitives, 
and intensives (intenswa), or verbs denoting a forcible 
action, are formed from perfect participles by substituting 
the characteristic a for the stem voweL Thus : — 



FREQUENT ATI VES, INTENSIVES, AND INCEPTIVES. 173 

adiutare from adiuvare (adiutus). 
dictare " dicer e (dictus). 

quassare " quatere (quassus). 
habitilre " habere (habitus), 

dormitare " dormire (dormitiim). 

(2.) From forms like habitare, the apparent ending 
-itare spread to various present stems, and also took the 
place of the regular formation from verbs of the first con- 
jugation. Thus: — 

agitare from agere. minitari from minari. 

noscitare " noscere. rogitare " rogare. 
clamitare " clamare. 
a. Vid'ere, see, makes visere through visits. 
(3.) Double formations occur. Thus: — 

currere cursare curs itare. 

dicere dictare dictitare. 

venire (ad)-ventare ventitare. 

(4.) Another kind of intensives is formed with the 
ending -esso, rarely -isso, in the third conjugation, with 
the perfect and perfect participle stems generally made 
after the analogy of the fourth, if used at all. Thus : — 

lacesso lacessere lacesswi lacessitus. 

incesso incessere incessivl or incessi 

petisso petissere 

a. Frequentatives are also called iteratives (iter utiv a), and 
the intensives in -esso (-isso) are also called meditatives 

(meditatwa). 

Inceptive Verbs. 
289. Inceptives or inchoatives (inceptwa or ineoh- 
ativa), that is, verbs which denote the beginning of an 
action, are formed by adding -sco to a verb stem, or by 
analogy, to noun stems. They are intransitive, of the 
third conjugation. (Cf. 235, 236, 237.) Thus : — 



174 WORD-FORMATION. 



labascere from lobar e. 


obdormiscere 


from obdormire. 


calescere " calere. 


puerascere 


" p^er. 


tremescere " tremere. 


iuvenescere 


" iuvenis. 


ingemiscere " ingemere. 


durescere 


" durus. 



Desideratxve and Diminutive Verbs. 

290. Desideratives (desiderativa) express a desire 
to do something. They end in -turio (-surio). Thus : — 

empturio empturire 

parturio parturire parturivi (-ii) parturition. 

esurio esurire esuritum 

Note. Others are rare and chiefly confined to the comic poets. 

291. Diminutive verbs (dliminut'iva) are formed 
from diminutive noun-forms in -illus by substituting a 
for the stem vowel. Thus : cantilldre, conscrihillare. 

Note. The diminutive verbs are very few in number. 

Derivation of Adverbs. 

292. Besides the adverbs in -e and -ter formed and 
compared from adjectives, given under 174 ££., the fol- 
lowing should be noticed : — 

(1.) Numeral adverbs are formed from numbers above 
four by the ending -ies. (Cf. 157 and 158.) Thus : — 
quinquies, five times. decies, ten times. 

(2.) Certain adverbs of manner are formed with the 
ending -atim as if accusatives of the third-declension 
nouns made from the perfect participle stems of verbs of 
the first conjugation. Thus : — 
gradatim, by degrees, slowly, as if through gradari, gradatus ; 

cf. gradi, to walk. 
gregatim, in crowds. Compare con-gregare, to gather into a 
. flock. 

(3.) A few adverbs denoting origin or manner end in 
-itus. Thus : — 






ADVERBS. — COMPOUND WORDS. 175 

divinities, from the gods. 
funditus, from the bottom, utterly. 
radlcitus, root and branch. 

293. All other adverbs were originally oblique cases of 
nouns, adjectives, or pronouns, and are — 

(1.) Also used as oblique cases. Thus : — 

multo, much. continuo, immediately. 

tantum, so much and no more, only. 
For others, see 187. 

(2.) Recognizable as case forms, though no longer 
used as such. Thus : — 

partim, partly. secus, otherwise. 

(3.) More or less disguised. Thus : — 
hinc, hence. illuc, thither. 

ad-eo* to such a degree, corn-minus,* at close quarters. 
quasi,* as it were. 

Compound Words. 

294. Almost all Latin compounds consist of two parts 
only, the second part forming what may be called the 
basis of the meaning, and the first part indicating some 
modification therein. 

Thus, in decemviri, the basis of meaning is viri, men, and 
this is limited by decern to a body of ten men ; in funambulus, 
the basis of meaning is " a walker," and this is limited in the 
compound to a rope-walker ; in vorsipellis, the basis of meaning, 
" skin," is limited by the notion of turning or changing, so that 
the compound means " changeable " (cf. English " turn-coat ") ; 
in persuaded, the basis of meaning, " advise," is modified so 
as to mean " advise through to the end " (i. e., carry one's point 
by advice, persuade). 

* Words like these are of course compounds, each part being- origi- 
nally a case form. They are included here for the convenience of the 
learner. 



176 WORD-FOKMATION. 

Nouns and Adjectives. 
295. (1.) The first part of a compound noun or ad- 
jective may be a noun, adjective, or participle stern, or 
a numeral, a preposition, or one of a small number of par- 
ticles called prefixes. 

(2.) The second part of a compound noun or adjective 
may be a noun, an adjective, or a participle, but it is far 
more commonly a noun or adjective form which does not 
occur as a simple word. Thus: — 

magnanimus, great-souled magno- -\- animus. 

vorsipellis, changeable vorso- -\- pellis. 

suaviloquens, sweet-speaking suavi- -\- loquens. 

funambulus, rope-walker funi- -|- [ambulus]. 

sacrilegus, sacrilegious sacro- -\- \legus~\. 

decemviri, decemvirs decern -f- viri. 

interrex, interrex # inter -|- rex. 

innaius, inborn in (prep.) -f- natus. 

imberbis, beardless in- (neg. prefix) and barba, 

nefas, wrong ne -J- fas. 

sublustris, rather light sub -\- \l~istris~\. 

pergrdtus, very pleasing per -j- gratus. 

a. Compound adjectives, which, like magnanimus, indicate 
the possession of some quality, are called possessives. The 
second part of these compounds is almost always a noun. 
Thus : multangulus, many-cornered : quadrupes, four-footed, f 

b. Other compound adjectives and all compound nouns are 
sometimes distinguished from the possessives by the name de- 
terminatives, because their first part determines how the mean- 
ing of the second part is to be applied. 

Note. In nouns and adjectives compounded with prepositions or pre- 
fixes, in is much more often a negative prefix than a preposition, sub has a 
diminutive force, per and (less commonly) prae an intensive force, as in the 
examples ahove. 

* I. e., an officer who rules hetween the death of one king and the ac- 
cession of the next. 

f Such compounds in English generally end in -ed, as in the translations 
of the examples above ; but compare words like bald-head, lap-streak. 



COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 177 

296. (1.) When the first part of a compound noun or 
adjective is a noun, adjective, or participle stem ending in 
a vowel, this vowel is usually dropped if the second part 
begins with a vowel, as in magnanimus and funambuhts, 
above. 

(2.) When the second part begins with a consonant, 
and occasionally when it begins with a vowel, the stem 
vowel of the first part is retained but generally weakened 
to i, as in sacrilegus above, or in tubicen, trumpeter (tu- 
ba- + [ce?z]), arcitenens, bow-holding (arcu- -f- teriens). 
a. Sometimes the stem vowel of the first part is only flattened 
to O or u, especially in compounds of early date. Thus : — 

viocurus, overseer of roads via- -\- \_curus~\. 

Troiicgena, Trojan-born Troia- -\- \_gena~\. 

quadrupes, four-footed quadro- -\- pes. 

297. (1.) If the first stem ends in a consonant it 
suffers in early compoimds only the euphonic changes re- 
quired by the rules in 65 ff., as iudex for iusdex, judge 
(i. e., right-speaker). 

(2.) Generally, however, consonant stems assume a 
vowel after the analogy of the other stems. This vowel 
was originally o, but is generally weakened to i or some- 
times flattened to u, as with the real stem vowels. 
Thus : — 

parricida, murderer of a father patr- -f- i -\- \clda\. 

morigerus,* complying Trior- -)- i -f- [gerus~\. 

pedisequa^ female attendant ped- -\- i -\- \_sequa]. 

298. Most compound verbs are formed of simple verbs 
and prepositions. Thus : — 

incipio, seize upon, begin in -\- capio. 
aufero, take away ab -\- fero. 

subverto, overturn sub -\- verto. 

* Literally, carrying- (i\ e., putting 1 xip with) a person's whims. 
t Literally, foot-follower. 



178 WOKD-FORMATION. 

a. The prepositions were earlier adverbs, and in composition 
often retain their adverbial force. Cf . i prae, sequor, go before, 
I (will) follow (Ter., And., i., 1, 144), with ut cdnsulibus lictdres 
praeirent, that lictors should walk before the consuls (Cic, He 
Pub., ii., 31, 55). 

b. The following compounds of verbs with other words than 
prepositions occur : — 

adsuefacid,* \ mansuefacid, tame. 

_/, ._ r accustom. . „ ._ 

consuejacio, ) patejacw, open. 

benef acid, benefit. satisfacid, satisfy. 

calefacio, make warm. tremefacid,% cause to tremble. 

commonefacid, remind forcibly, maid, prefer (mage -j- void). 

labefacid, make totter. nolo, be unwilling (ne -\- void). 

malefacid, do harm to. satagd, be busy enough {sat -f- 

agd). 

299. In the second part of words compounded with 
a preposition or the negative prefix in-, vowel weakening 
generally occurs. Thus : — 

eonficid, cdnfectum eon -f- / acid, factum, 

imperd in (prep.) -f- pard. 

inimlcus in- (neg.) -|- amicus, 

iniquus in- (neg.) -J- aequus. 

a. In compounds of iacid the verb form appears as icio, 
before which the vowel of a preposition ending in a vowel is 
retained long, and that of one ending in a consonant is often 
lengthened. Thus : — 

abicid. deicio. traicio. 

conicid. obicid. subicio. 

300. A very few words are compounded of more than 
two stems. Thus : — 

suovetaurilia f su- -j- ovi- -|- tauro- 
a. Words of which both parts are inflected are, properly 

* The nature of the first part of these compounds (A f acid is obscure ; it 
is probably a noun form or possibly an infinitive. 

t A sacrifice consisting of a swine, a sheep, and a bull. 

t These words are accented like the simple facio ; as, benefd'cit. 



FORMS OF PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOUNDS. 179 

speaking, not compounds, and in the best usage are written 
separately. Thus : ius iurandum, oath ; res publica, state ; 
ver'i siniilis, likely. 

b. So also forms like multimodis (i. e., multis modis), inpri- 
mis, agri cidtura, aquae ductus, pater familias, are not real 
compounds, but only phrases which have grown more or less 
together. Perhaps also satis facto, bene facio, etc., should be 
classed with these loose unions of words rather than as com- 
pound verbs. In animadverto (i. e., animum adverto) the union 
is disguised by the dropping of the accusative ending -um. 

c. From real compounds are to be distinguished derivatives 
from compounds, such as the following : — 

beneficium, kindness, from beneficus (bene-, stem of old form 
of bonus, and ficus, from root of facio). 

solstitium, solstice,* as if from solstitus (sol- and status). 

tergiversari, shuffle, as if from tergiversus (tergo- and versus). 

Cf. cogitare, to meditate, which may be regarded as a com- 
pound of com and agitare, or as a frequentative of cogere, itself 
a compound of conn and agere. 

Note. Latin did not develop the ability to form compounds to anything 
like the extent of the Greek and other kindred languages. Most of the 
compounds formed, except those with prepositions or the negative prefix 
in-, are rare and confined chiefly to the poets. 

Forms of the Prepositions in Compounds. 

301. Prepositions ending in a consonant vary greatly 
in the degree in which their final consonant is assimilated 
with the initial consonant of the other part of the com- 
pound. Thus, in the best usage : — 

(1.) ab is written before d, h, i consonans, 1, n, r, s. 
Thus : ah-dico, ah-Jiorreo, eib-iectus, a>h-iudicd, ah-lego, 
8bb-nuo, &fc>-ripio, ab-s^m. 

abs before c, t. Thus : ahs-cedo, eibs-tineo. 

as before p. Thus : as-porto. 

a before f in a-ful, and before m or v. Thus : a-moveo, 

SL-VOCO. 

* The time when the sun seems to stand still. 



180 WORD-FORMATION. 

au before f in au-fero and Siu-fugid. 

(2.) ad is written before b, d, f, h, i consondns, m, n, 
q, v. Thus : ad-bibo, ad- duco, ad-fatim, ad-fero, ad- 
hered", ad-iuto, ad-m/irabilis, ad-moneo, ad-nuo, ad-qiiiro, 
ad-voco. 

Generally before g, 1, p, r, s. Thus : ad-gredior, ad- 
ligo, ad-peto, ad-rogo, ad-sum. Otherwise assimilation 
takes place. Thus : ag-ger, al-ligo, ap^ieto, ar-rogo. 

ac before c. Thus : ac-cipio. 

ad or a before gn, sp, so, st. Thus: a-gnosco ^ad- 
nosed}, ad-spiro (a-spiro), ad.-scisco, ad-stringo (a- 
stringo). 

ad or at before t. Thus: a\>-tralio (ad-tralio). 

(3.) ante has the form anti in anti-cz£>o (from an ob- 
solete anti-ceps), anti-cipatio, anti-stes, anti-s^o.* 

(4.) com is written before b, m, p. Thus: com-ifwo, 
com-mltto, corn-pages, com-paro. 

con before c, d, g, i consonans, q, t, v, and generally 
before 1 and r. Thus : con-cipio, con-duco, coTL-gero, 
con-iuro, con-queror, con-temno, con-voco, con-lego (col- 
lego), con-loquhtm (co\-loquiurri) , con-n^o (cor-rwo). 

con before f , s. Thus : cbn-fero, cbn-sterno, con-sisto. 

co before gn, n, and before vowels f and h, and when 
contracted as in cogo. Thus : co-gnosco, cb-necto, cb- 
riiveo, cb-riitor. (Cf. conubium?) 

(5.) ex is written before c, h, p, q, s, t. Thus : ex- 
celsus, e^-cipio, en-haurio, ex.-peto, ex.-quiro, ex-specto, 
e^-tendo. 

e before b, d, g, i consonans, 1, m, n, r, v. Thus : 
e-blandior, e-duco, e-gredior, e-gregius, e-iuro, e-labor, 
e-mineo, e-neco, e-ripio, e-vado. 

ef, and sometimes ec, before f. Thus : ef-fero and 
(less commonly) ec-fero. 

* Cf. the old forms antid-ed, antid-ed, antid-hac. 
t Comedo may be an exception. 



FORMS OF PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOUNDS. 181 

(6.) in is written before c, d, g (except gn), h, i con- 
sonans, n, q, t, v. Thus : in-cedo, in-duco, in-gemisco, 
in-hio, in-iungo, in-mtor, in-quiro, in-tendo, in-vado. 

in is also generally written before 1 and sometimes be- 
fore b, m, p, r. Otherwise assimilation occurs before 
1 and r ; and im is written before b, m, p. Thus : in- 
liisti'o, im-buo, in-mitto (im-mitto), im-pero (in-^ero), 
in-ruo (iv-ruo). 

in before f, s. Thus : va-fero, m-sero. 

a. What has been said of the preposition in is equally true of 
the negative prefix in-. We write, therefore, in-liberalis, in- 
mortalis (im-mortalis) , in-sons, in-vtsus, etc. 

b. The negative prefix, however, unlike the preposition, oc- 
curs before gin, and then has the form I ; as, i-gnarus, i-gnosco. 

(7.) ob is written before d, h, i consonans, 1, m, n, r, 
s, t, v. Thus : ob-ducd, ob-haereo, ob-iectus, ob-iiirgo, 
ob-lino, ob-mutesco, ob-nubo, ob-ruo, ob-sistd, ob-tineo, 
ob-venio. 

Assimilation generally takes place before c, f, p. 
Thus : oc-curro, of-fero, oip-peto. 

o is written in o-mitto, and o-perio. 

obs in obs-olesco, and without the b in os-tendo. 

(8.) per is unchanged, except in -pe-iero for per-mro. 
e-iero is also sometimes written. 

(9.) sub is written before d, h, i consonans, 1, s, t, v. 
Thus: sub-dilco, sub-haereo, sub-iungo, sub-Zero, sub- 
liistris, sub-sisto, sub-te?ido, sub-venio. 

Sometimes before m and r. Thus : sub-moved (sum- 
moveo), sub-rijno (sur-rz^zo). 

stis (for subs) in sus-cipio, sus-cito, sus-pe?ido, sus- 
sed", sus-tull. 

su in su-spicere, su-spiro. 

Assimilation occurs before c, f, g, p, and sometimes m 



182 WORD-FORMATION. 

and r (see above). Thus: suc-curro* suf-foro, sug-gero, 
sup-jt?e£o, suip-pleo. 

(10.) trans is written before d, f, g, m, p, v. Thus : 
trans-cw/To, trans^/ero, transf uga, tva,ns-g red ior, trans- 
mitio, tr&ns-porto, trans- veAo. 

tran before s. Thus : tran-sm&o, tra,n-sce?ido. 

trans or tra before d, n. Thus : trans-cfco (tra- 
duco), tra-c?o, trans-?ia£o (trar-natd) : 

302. Among the inseparable prepositions — 

(1.) amb becomes am before consonants, chiefly p. 
Thus : sun-puto, enn-plector. But an before f, h, or a 
palatal mute. Thus : an-AeZo, an-quiro (cf. sm-ceps^ an- 
fr actus). 

(2.) dis is written in dis-hiasco, and before c, p, q, t, 
and s, followed by a vowel. Thus : dis-cedo, dis-par, 
dis-puto, dis-quiro, dis-tendo, dis-sentio (but di-sertus, 
from dis-se?'d). 

dif before f. Thus : dif-fero, dif-ficilis. 

di before other consonants. Thus : dl-duco, dl-gero, 
dl-moveo, di-scindo. 

dis or di before i consonans. Thus : dis-iungo, but 
di-iudico. 

(3.) re (so also pro) retains the original d before 
vowels. Thus : red-eo. Also in red-do. 

303. A few compounds with prepositions ending in a 
consonant suffer contraction. Thus : — 

surgo for sub -{- rego. pergo for per -j- rego. 

pond " po -|- sino. 

Quantity of Compounds. 

304. Compound words generally retain the quantity of 
the parts of which they are composed, even though vowel 
change may have taken place. 

* Here also sub is sometimes left unchanged. 



QUANTITY OF COMPOUNDS. 183 

Note. The following- observations are inserted here for the convenience 
of the learner, although some of the words treated are not compounds ; for 
example, quid am. 

305. i is long in the first part of words like quid am, 
quivis, etc., if that part is declined. Thus : qitilibet, 

.qmcumque, etc., but quidem. 

306. The following words beginning with pro (and 
their derivatives) have the o short : — 

a. procella, blast, storm. profringo, break up. 
prof and, desecrate. profugio, flee from. 
profecto, surely. profundus, deep. 
profestus, non-festival (day), pronepos, great-grandson. 
proficiscor, start. propes, a piece of rigging. 
profiteor, profess. propinquus, near. 
profari, speak out. protervos (-us), forward. 

b. All Greek words, and the following with their deriva- 
tives : — 

probus, first class. proco, demand. 

probrum, wrong. procus, suitor. 

prope, near. propitius, propitious. 

c. The o is common in propago, f., a slip, propagare, to 
propagate, and propinare, to drink to the health of. 

307. The following compounds of ne have the e long; 
others have it short : — 

riecubi. nequam. nequitia. 

necunde. nequaquam. nescius. 

nedum. nequlquam. nescio. 

nemo. nequiter. neve. 

308. The following quantities are useful to remem- 
ber : — 

alicubi. ubivis. quandoquidem. 

sicubl utinam. siquidem. 

ubicumque. ibidem. nisi, 

ubinam. equidem. quasi, 

ubique. quidem. alibi. 



184 



SYNTAX. 



Note 1. An interesting- relation exists "between the consonants of many 
primitive words in Latin and those of the corresponding words in English, 
hoth being derived from the same (Indo-European) parent language. This 
relation may he indicated hy the following scheme : — 



Latin. 
c 

S 
t 
d 



P 

h (rare) 
f 



English, 
h* 
k 
th 
t 
f 

P 
b 



Latin. 

canis, 

genus, 

tres, 

decern, 

pater, 

labrum, 

fero, /rater, 



English. 

hound. 

kin. 

three. 

ten. 

father. 

lip. 

hear, brother. 



r- 

1 


lux, 




light. 


m 


mens, 




mind. 


n 


novos, 




new. 


r 


rectus, 




right. 


s 


suavis, 


\/sudd, 


sweet. 



l consonans y luvenis, young. 

v w via, volnus, way, wound. 

Note 2. It will be seen that, as far as the mutes are concerned, the 
English word shows the mute which occupies in the scale smooth, middle, 
rough, the place next after the Latin mute (Grimm's Law of the Per- 
mutation of Mutes). 

SYNTAX (Syntaxis). 

The Sentence. 

309. A sentence (sententia) is the statement of a 
complete thought in words ; as, canes latrant, the dogs are 
barking. 

310. (1.) That about which something is said is called 
the subject (subiecturri) of the sentence. 

(2.) That which is said of the subject is called the 
predicate (pr ' dedication). 

Thus, in the above sentence, canes is the subject and latrant 

is the predicate. In the sentence, Hannibal, magnus dux Kar- 

thaginiensium, sempiternum erga Momarios odium iiiravit, 

Hannibal the great Carthaginian leader swore everlasting hatred 

* This h is the remnant of an earlier ch. 



THE SENTENCE. 185 

towards the Romans, the subject is Hannibal mdgnus dux 
Karthaginiensium, the predicate sempiternum erga Homanos 
odium iurdvit. 

311. (1.) A sentence containing only one subject and 
predicate is called a simple sentence. 

(2.) A sentence consisting of two or more members, 
each of which has its own subject and predicate, is called 
a COMPOUND sentence. Thus : — 

Latravit canis — et fur velociter fugit, the dog barked and 
the thief ran quickly away ; cum pugnae finis esset f actus — 
e os — qui ceciderant — sepeliebant, when the battle was fin- 
ished, they began to bury those who had fallen. 

312. The different members of a compound sentence 
are called clauses. 

313. Clauses are either principal or subordinate. 

314. (1.) A principal (also called independent) 
clause is one which makes complete sense by itself ; as, 
latravit canis, or eos sepeliebant. 

(2.) A subordinate (or dependent) clause is one 
which makes complete sense only when taken with some 
other clause upon which it is said to depend. Thus : cum 
pugnae finis esset f actus, and qui ceciderant, in the sen- 
tence above. 

a. Sentences which contain subordinate clauses and only one 
principal clause are sometimes called complex sentences ; as, 
Phocion fuit perpetud pauper, cum ditissimus esse posset, Pho- 
cion was always poor, when he might have been very rich. The 
term " compound sentence " is then confined to sentences which, 
like latravit canis et fur velociter fugit, have more than one 
independent clause. In complex sentences the principal clause 
is often called the main clause. 

b. Parts of a sentence consisting- of two or more words which 
are not subject and predicate are called phrases. Thus : mag- 
nus dux Karthaginiensium ; fortiter pugnare. 



186 SYNTAX. 

315. Sentences are distinguished as — 

(1.) Declarative (declaraflvae), or such as have the 
form of a statement ; as, venfi spirant, the winds blow. 

(2.) Interrogative (interrogdtivae), or such as have 
the form of a question ; as, spirantne venfi, do the winds 
blow ? 

(3.) Exclamatory (exclamatoriae), or such as have 
the form of an exclamation ; as, quam vehementer spirant 
venfi, how fiercely the winds blow ! Utinam veniat, oh 
that he may come ! 

(4.) Imperative (imperativae), or such as have the 
form of a command, an exhortation, or a prohibition ; as, 
spirate, venfi, blow, winds ; veniat helium, let the war 
come ; ne quaesieris, ask not. 

a. Sentences expressing exhortation are also called horta- 
tory ; those denoting prohibition, prohibitory. 

Bules of Agreement. 

316. The subject of a finite verb is put in the nomina- 
tive case, and the verb agrees with its subject in number 
and person. Thus : — 

Ego scribo, I write ; nds veniemus, we shall come ; tu legis, 
you read; hi Graecl sunt, these men are Greeks; Romulus 
Romam condidit, Romulus founded Rome. 

a. When the subject is a personal pronoun, especially in the 
first or second person, it is seldom expressed except when it 
marks a contrast or is otherwise emphatic. The person and 
number are shown by the ending of the verb. Thus : — 

Cupid, I desire ; vivis, thou livest ; habemus, we have ; di- 
cunt, they say. But : eg5 regis eiecl, vos tyrannos introduci- 
tis, I drove out kings, but you are bringing in tyrants ; tu es 
patronus, tu pater, you are my defender, you my father. 

317. The nominative of the third person is further 
omitted : — 



EULES OF AGREEMENT. 187 

(1.) When it has been expressed in a previous clause (gen- 
erally as subject, but also sometimes in other constructions). 
Thus : — 

Mosa profluit ex ?nonte Vosego et in Oceanum influit (Caes., 
B. G.i iv., 10), the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains and 
empties into the ocean ; cursorem mlserunt ut id nuntidret, 
they sent a courier to carry that news (Cor. Nep.). 

(2.) When people in general are meant, as when we say 
" men," k < they," " one." Thus : — 

Dlcunt, they say ; ut aiunt, as they say ; maxime admiran- 
tur eum qui pecunibl non movetur, men particularly admire one 
who is not influenced by money (Cic). 

(3.) So in treatises or discussions, when the subject denotes 
a type of persons, where we say " one." Thus : — 

In victu conslderdre opovtet apud quern et quo more et cidus 
arbitratu sit educatus, in regard to manner of living we must 
consider in whose family and in what fashion and under whose 
direction one has been brought up (i. e., the person in question) 
(Cic, Inv.j i., 25, 35). 

318. Certain verbs are used in the third person singular 
without a subject (impersonal, impersonalia). Thus: — 

(1.) Verbs denoting the state of the weather or operations of 
nature ; as, fulgurat, it lightens ; ningit, it snows ; lueescebat, 
it was growing light. 

(2.) The verbs of feeling : miseret, pity ; paenitet, repent ; 
plget, be disgusted ; pudet, be ashamed ; taedet, be tired. 
Thus : — 

Eos ineptiarum paenitet, they repent (lit., it repents them) 
of their follies ; miseret te aliorum, tut te nee miseret nee 
pudet, you do pity others ; for yourself you have neither pity 
nor shame (Plaut., Trin., ii., 4, 30). 

Note. It -will be seen that the real subject of the feeling here is by a 
grammatical idiom made the object of the verb. 

(3.) The passive of intransitive verbs and of some transitive 
verbs. Thus : — 



188 SYNTAX. 

Favetur tibi a me, you have my support ; ad exitum ven- 
tum est, the end was reached ; actum est de imperio, the su- 
premacy is lost (lit., it is finished with regard to the supremacy). 

(4.) Especially the neuter of the gerundive with est, erat, 
etc., denoting what must be done. Thus : — 

Si vis me flere, dolendum est prlmum ipsi tibi, if you 
want me to weep, you must first grieve yourself (Hor., Epist., 
ii., 3, 102). 

a. Many apparently impersonal verbs have a clause or an 
infinitive as subject. So especially words like accidit, happens ; 
constat, is accepted as true ; conuenit, is agreed. Thus : — 

Evenit, senibus ambobus simul iter ui esset, both old gentle- 
men happened to take the same road (Ter., JPhor.. i., 2, 15) ; 
vaxare culpa magnum est solarium, to be free from fault is a 
great consolation ; orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore 
sand, we should pray for a sound mind in a sound body (Iuv., 
Sat., x., 356) ; orator em irasci non decet, it is unseemly for an 
orator to give way to anger. 

319. Two or more singular subjects generally have a 
plural verb. Thus : — 

Furor ir&que mentem praecipitant, madness and passion 
rob [me] of my cool reason (Verg.) ; grammatice quondam ac 
musice iiinctae fuerunt, grammar and music were once united 
(Quint.). 

a. The verb is always plural, when, as in the second example, 
it would make no sense with the subjects taken separately. 

320. With several singular subjects, however, the verb 
is singular if — 

(1.) They form together one idea ; as : — 

Senatus populusque Romanics iussit, the Roman senate 
and people gave orders ; mens enim et ratio et consilium in 
senibus est, intelligence, reason, wisdom belong to old men. 

(2.) Generally if connected by a word meaning " or " or 
" nor " (aut, vet, neque, etc.) ; as : — 

Si Socrates aut Antisthenes dicer et, if Socrates or Antis- 
thenes said [this]. 



APPOSITIVES AND PREDICATE NOUNS. 189 

321. But the verb often agrees with the nearest nomi- 
native, or with the most important one, and is understood 
with the rest. Thus : — 

Turn aetas viresque, turn avita gl5ria animum stimulabat, 
then his (youthful) age and strength and the thought of his 
grandfather's glory goaded on his spirit (Liv.). 

a. This is always the case when the verb belongs to each sub- 
ject separately ; as : — 

Magis ego te amo quam tu me, I love you more than you 
love me. 

322. When a plural verb is used with subjects of differ- 
ent persons, it is of the first person rather than the second, 
and of the second person rather than the third. Thus : — 

Si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if you and 
Tuliia are well, Cicero and I are well. 

323. A relative pronoun may represent any one of the 
three persons ; its verb takes therefore the person of the 
antecedent. Thus : — 

Ego, qui te conflrmo, ipse me non possum, I, who comfort 
you, cannot comfort myself. 

For the agreement of the verb with an appositive or a predicate noun, 
see 330. 

For the constructio ad sensum, see 345 ff. 

Appositives and Predicate Nouns. 

324. A noun qualifying another noun or pronoun de- 
noting the same person or thing agrees with it in case. 

325. When the qualifying noun is annexed to the other 
noun without the intervention of a verb it is called an 
appositive, and the words are said to be IN apposition. 
Thus : — 

Scipio dux, Scipio, the general ; nos consules, we consuls ; 
urbs Roma, the city of Rome ; Volsinii, oppidum Tuscorum 
opulentissimum, totum crematum est fidmine, Volsinii, a very 
rich town of the Tuscans, was wholly consumed by fire caused 



190 SYNTAX. 

by lightning (Plin., N. H., ii., 53) ; Tullia, deliciae nostrae, 
munusculum tuum fiagitat, Tullia, my darling, lias a little favor 
to beg of you (Cic, Att., i., 8.) 

a. A noun may be in apposition to two or more nouns, and 
is then usually plural. Thus : — 

M. Antonius C. Cassius tribuni plebis, Marcus Antonius 
and Gaius Cassius, tribunes of the commons. 

b. So when two nouns are connected by cum, an appositive 
takes the case of the former ; as : — 

Dicaearchum vero cum Aristoxeno, doctos sane homi- 
nes omittamus, let us leave out Dicaearchus with Aristoxenus, 
[who are] certainly learned men. 

c. A noun denoting a whole may have in apposition to it 
words denoting the parts (partitive apposition) . Thus : — 

Onerariae, pars maxima ad Aegimurum, aliae adversus 
urbem ipsam delatae sunt, the ships of burden were mostly 
carried to Aegimurus, others over against the city itself (Liv.). 

d. Quisque, as an appositive, generally remains in the nomina- 
tive even when the other word has a different case ; as : — 

Multis sihi quisque impermm petentibus, while many were 
trying to get the power, each for himself (Sail., lug., 18). 

e. Ipse is sometimes used in the same way by Livy and later 
writers. 

For the apposition of common nouns with names of towns in construc- 
tions of place, see 426, g and h. 

326. In the same sense as a noun in apposition is some- 
times used a genitive depending on the noun (see 351, 
note), especially with names of cities ; as, urbs Momae. 

a. The expression " my name is so and so " may be trans- 
lated into Latin in the following three ways : — 

Camillus * mihi est nomen (proper name predicate nomi- 
native). 

Camillo mihi est nomen (proper name in app. with mihf). 

Camilli mihi est nomen ( " " " gen. with nomen). 

Note. Cicero uses most often the first of the three ways given. 
* Lit., " Camillus is the name to me." 



PREDICATE NOUNS. 191 

327. When the annexed noun is combined with the 
other by the copula sum or other similar verb (expressed 
or implied *) it is called a predicate noun. Thus : — 

Ira furor brevis est, anger is a short madness ; ego vocor 
Lyconides, I am called Lyconides ; iudicem me esse void, I 
wish to be a judge. 

328. Predicate nouns are most commonly used 
with : — 

(1.) The copula sum ; as : — 

Socrates sapiens erat, Socrates was a philosopher. 

(2.) Intransitive verbs denoting existence, position, or 
motion ; as : — 

Haec incedit regina, she walks [like] a queen ; tune venis 
legatus, do you come as an ambassador ? 

(3.) The passive of verbs meaning — 

a. To name or call ; as : — 

Cicero pater patriae est appellatus, Cicero was called the 
father of his country ; ille liber orator Inscrlbitur, that book 
is entitled " The Orator." 

b. To choose, render, appoint ; as : — 
Consul creatus est, he is appointed consul. 

c. To esteem, reckon, consider ; as : — 

Vir bonus semper erat habitus, he had always been con- 
sidered a good man ; artium domicilium putantur Athenae, 
Athens is thought to be the home of the arts. 

(4.) Many other verbs, to denote a purpose, occasion, 
or circumstance of the action ; as : — 

Puer hoc audivi, I heard this when a boy ; Brutus consul 
auspicia nuntiavit, Brutus, as consul, declared the omens. 

329. Appositives and predicate nouns agree in gender 

* When the verb is only implied, the noun is sometimes called a pred- 
icate appositive ; as, Ciceronem cdnsulem credverunt, they appointed 
Cicero [to he] consul. 



1 92 SYNTAX. 

with the nouns they qualify, if they have a form of the 
same gender. Thus : — 

Usus, magister egregius, experience, an excellent master ; 
philosophia, vitae magistra, philosophy, the guide of life ; 
licentia corruptrix est morum, excessive freedom is a cor- 
rupter of character. 

a. There was a tendency to make the two nouns agree in 
number also. Thus : — 

Omitto illas omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas, I 
leave out Athens, that well known discoverer of all the branches 
of learning (cf. Cic, de Or., i., 4, 13). 

b. When a verb has a complementary infinitive (see 532) 
dependent upon it, its predicate noun is still nominative ; as : — 

NoI'j esse sceleratontm laudator, I would not be a eulogist 
of rascals. 

c. In the poets a similar usage is sometimes found, by which 
an infinitive which should have a subject is used without a subject, 
and the predicate noun which would be in the accusative is at- 
tracted into the nominative ; as : — 

Uxor invicti Iovis esse nescis, know'st thou not thou art the 
wife of Jove invincible ? 

330. A verb sometimes agrees with a predicate noun, 
or a noun in apposition with the subject, especially if it is 
nearer than the subject. Thus : — 

Amantium Irae amoris integratio est, the quarrels of lov- 
ers are a renewal of love (Ter., An., hi., 3, 23) ; Tungri, civi- 
tas Galliae, fontem habet insignem, the Tungri, a state of 
Gaul, have a remarkable fountain (Plin., JV. ZT., xxxi., 2 (8), 12). 

Note. This is always the case when the appositive is the name of a 
person. 

Kindred Constructions. 

331. Instead of a predicate noun (nominative or accu- 
sative), occur also : — 



AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 193 

(1.) A dative of service (see 385) ; as, hoc milu erat 
curae. 

(2.) An ablative with pro (see 430) ; as, pr5 filio eicm 
habebat. 

(3.) A genitive after loco, in place of, or in nitmero, in the 
number of. 

Agreement of Adjectives. 

332. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and par- 
ticiples agree with their nouns in gender, number, and 
case. 

333. When such words are applied to their nouns di- 
rectly they are called attributives. Thus : — 

Bonus vir, a good man ; benigna mater, a kind mother ; 
haec res, this thing. 

334. When they are applied indirectly (by means of 
a verb expressed or implied) they are called predicate 

adjectives, etc. Thus : — 

Mea mater est benigna, my mother is kind ; hae leges uti- 
lissimae ducuntur, these laws are considered most beneficial ; 
hae sunt verae dlvitiae, this is real riches. 

Note. Appositives and attributives assume the thing said of the noun 
which they qualify ; predicate nouns, adjectives, etc., affirm it. 

335. Adjectives * belonging to two or more nouns of 
the same gender are put in the plural. Thus : — 

Et Me imperator et ille scriptor praeclarl sunt, both this 
general and that writer are famous. 

336. When the nouns are of different genders, if they 
denote things with life, the adjective is masculine rather 
than feminine ; if they denote things without life, the 
adjective is generally neuter. Thus : — 

Pater milu et mater mortul sunt, my father and mother 

* Whatever is said of the agreement of adjectives applies also, of course, 
to adjective pronouns and participles. 



194 SYNTAX. 

are dead ; regna, imperia, nobilitates, honores, divitiae, 
in cusu sita sunt, kingdoms, offices, distinctions, honors, riches, 
depended on chance. 

Note. This is the more common use with a, predicate adjective. 

337. Or the adjective may be — 

(1.) Repeated with each noun ; as : — 

Semproniae multae facetiae multus^e lepos inerat, 
Sempronia was gifted with much wit and grace. 

(2.) Expressed with one noun and understood with the 
others ; as : — 

Hominis utilitati agri omnes et maria parent, all lands 
and seas serve the needs of mankind. 

Note. These two uses are perhaps the more common with attributive 
adjectives. (Compare the agreement of the verh with several subjects, 
319-321.) 

338. Two adjectives in the singular often belong to a 
plural noun ; as : — 

Cum legionibus secunda et tertia, with the second and 
third legions. 

a. A singular noun, denoting different instances of the same 
kind, may have several adjectives agreeing with it ; as : — 

Bellum Punicum et Hispaniense, the Punic and Spanish 
wars. 

339. Any part of speech used as a mere word is treated 
as a neuter noun, and takes an adjective in the neuter 
singular. Thus : — ■ 

Supremum vale dixit, he uttered the last farewell ; eras 
istud quando venit ? when is that to-morrow you mention com- 
ing ? 

340. When the subject of an infinitive is omitted after 
a dative denoting the same person or thing, a predicate 
adjective is sometimes put in the dative, sometimes in 
the accusative, as if the subject had been expressed. 
Thus : — 



AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 195 

Da miln iusto sancto^e viderl, grant me to seem just 
and holy ; si clul Romano licet esse Gaditanum, if a Roman 
citizen may [also] be a citizen of Cades. 

341. A participle which should regularly agree with 
the subject of a clause sometimes agrees with a predicate 
noun, or with a noun in apposition with the subject, if 
these are nearer the participle. (Cf. 330.) Thus : — 

Non omnis error stultitia est dicenda, not every mistake 
is to be called folly ; illorum urbem ut propugnaculum op- 
position! esse barbarls, [he said] their city stood as a bulwark 
in the way of the barbarians. 

a. An adjective which belongs in sense to a genitive is some- 
times made to agree with the noun on which the genitive de- 
pends. Thus : — 

Ad rnai5ra initia rerum ducentibus fatis, the fates leading 
to the beginnings of greater things. 

b. An adjective belonging to a noun upon which a partitive 
genitive depends sometimes takes the gender of that genitive ; 
as : — 

Velocissimum omnium animalium est delphinus, the 
swiftest of all animals is the dolphin. 

c. An adjective which belongs in sense to the antecedent of 
a relative pronoun is often put into the relative clause and made 
to agree with the relative. Thus : — 

Inter iocos quos inconditos iacucnt, among the rude jests 
which they bandy about. 

Note. This is the usual arrangement with numerals, comparatives, 
and superlatives. Thus: node quam in terrls ultimam egit, the last 
nig-ht he spent on earth ; Aesculapius, qui primus volnus obligdvisse dicitur, 
iEsculapius, who is said to have been the first to bind up a wound. 

Agreement of Relative Pronouns. 

342. Relative pronouns agree with their antece- 
dents in gender and number, but their case depends upon 



196 SYNTAX. 

the construction of the clause to which they belong.* 
Thus : — 

Puer qui legit, the boy who reads ; ego non sum qualis eram, 
I am not such as I was ; Deus, cuius munere vivimits, cui 
nidlus est similis, quern colimus, a quo facta sunt omnia, est 
aeternus, God, by whose bounty we live, whom none is like unto, 
whom we worship, by whom all things were made, is eternal. 

a. The relative pronoun seems to have been originally an ad- 
jective pronoun agreeing with a noun in its own clause and re- 
ferring to another case of the same noun with a demonstrative 
or similar word in the antecedent clause. Examples of such use 
still occurred in classical Latin ; as : — 

Erant omriino duo itinera quibus itineribus domo exlre 
possent, there were only two routes by which (routes) they 
could go from home (Cses., B. G., i., 6). 

b. Usually, however, only one of these nouns is expressed ; 
as : — 

(1.) The antecedent noun expressed ; as : — 

Tantae multitudinis quantam capit urbs nostra concursus 
est ad me f actus, there was a gathering to meet me of a crowd 
as large as our city contains (Cic). 

(2.) The noun in the relative clause expressed ; as : — 

Quibus de rebus ad me scrlpsisti coram videbimus, we 
will see about the things of which you wrote me when we meet 
(Cic.) ; in quern primum egressl sunt locum Troio: vocatur, 
the first place at which they landed is called Troy (Liv.). 

c. The noun is most commonly thus expressed in the relative 
clause only : — 

(1.) When, as in the examples, the relative clause precedes. 
A demonstrative then often stands in the second clause ; as : — 

Ad quas res aptissimi erimus, in iis potissimum elaborabi- 
mus, we shall toil most earnestly in those things for which we are 
best fitted. 

* The rule applies, of course, not only to relative pronouns proper, 
but to all pronouns used to refer to words in clauses other than their 



AGREEMENT OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 197 

(2.) When the noun is in apposition with some word in the 
antecedent clause, or with the antecedent clause itself; as : — 

Santones rion longe a Tolosatium flnibus absunt, quae 
civitas est in provincial, the Santones are not far from the 
borders of the Tolosates, which state is in the Province (Caes.). 

d. Sometimes the relative clause comes between the antece- 
dent noun and the rest of the antecedent clause. The ante- 
cedent then usually has the case of the relative. Thus : — 

Urbem quam statuo vestra est, the city which I am building 
is yours. 

e. Occasionally the relative takes the case of the antecedent 
instead of its own proper case. Thus : — 

Cum scribas et aliquid agas eorum quorum consuesti, when 
you write and speak of some one of the things you are wont 
to speak of (Cic, Fam., v., 14, l). 

Note, d and e are called cases of attraction, and are rare in classical 
prose. 

343. When two or more clauses in which the relative 
has different constructions refer to the same antecedent, 
sometimes the relative is repeated in different cases (as 
in the third example under 342), sometimes only the first 
relative is expressed and the others are either omitted or 
represented by demonstratives. Thus : — 

Bocchus cum peditibus, qu5s filius eius adduxerat, neque 
in priore pugna adfuerant, Romanos invadunt, Bocchus and the 
infantry which his son had brought and [which] had not taken 
part in the earlier battle attack the Romans ; Brutus ille cui 
Caesar ignoverat et eum pjostea f ilium fere habiterat, that Bru- 
tus whom Caesar had pardoned and had afterwards treated al- 
most like a son. 

a. When a predicate noun is used with a relative, the pro- 
noun commonly agrees with the predicate noun rather than 
with the antecedent. Thus : — 

Career ille quae lautumiae vocantur, that dungeon which 
is called the " Stone Quarry." 



198 SYXTAX. 

b. But if tlie sentence is negative or if the predicate noun is a 
proper name, the relative agrees with its antecedent as by the 
general rule. Thus : — 

Nullum factum quod stultitia appellarl potest laude 
dignum est, no act which can be called folly is worthy of praise ; 
flurnen quod nominatur Rhenus, the river which is called the 
Rhine. 

344. A relative having more than one antecedent is 
always plural, but its gender is regulated like that of ad- 
jectives (see 336 and 337). Thus : — 

Ninus et Semiramis qui Babylona condiderant, Ninus and 
Semiramis who had founded Babylon ; naves et captiv5s * 
quae ad Chium capjtd erant, the ships and prisoners which had 
been taken at Chios ; tu et pater, qui in convwio eratis. you 
and father, who were at the feast. 

COXSTRUCTIO AD SeXSTTM. 

345. Sometimes the various kinds of words whose 
agreements have been treated in the foregoing sections 
regulate their agreement not by the grammatical form as 
described, but in accordance with the real meaning in- 
volved. This is called coxstructio ad sexsum, con- 
struction according to the meaning. It is particularly 
common where the word which settles the agreement is a 
collective noun. 

346. Thus a plural verb is often used : — 

(1.) When the subject is a collective word : as : — 

Uterque eorum ex castris exercitum edficunt. both of them 
lead their armies out of camp (Cass.) ; pars epulis onerant 
mensas. some load the tables with food (Verg.). 

a. Abstract nouns, and nouns like miles, eqites, etc. are often 
used collectively; as, nobilitas for "nobles," eques for ''the 
cavalry." 

Note. The plural verb serves to bring out more distinctly the indiyidu- 
* Treated as "thing's. " 



CONSTRUCTIO AD SENSUM. 199 

ality of the persons meant by the collective noun. The construction is 
rare in simple sentences in Cicero, Csesar, and Sallust, common in Livy, 
and especially frequent in poetry. 

(2.) With a singular subject combined with cum and 
the ablative ; as : — 

Bocchus cum peditibus postremam Romanorum aciem 
invadunt, Bocchus and his infantry attack the rear of the Ro- 
man line (Sail., lug.). 

347. So also the number and gender of an adjective 
sometimes follow the sense implied : — 

(1.) In a collective noun or its equivalent ; as : — 

Pars per agros dilapsi . . . suam quisque spem exsequentes, 
part, scattering through the country, . . . following each his 
own hope (Liv.) ; Latium Capua^e agro muitati, Latium 
and Capua were fined in land (i. e., forced to give up part of 
their territory) (Liv.). 

a. In such cases, when the verb is plural (see 346) the ad- 
jective is always plural. 

b. Sometimes, especially in poetry, only the gender is regu- 
lated by the constructio ad sensum. Thus : — 

Pars arduus altis pulverulentus equis furit, part raised 
aloft on tall horses dash about covered with dust (Verg.). 

c. Sallust often, and other writers sometimes, thus use a neu- 
ter adjective with several feminine nouns which denote things. 
Thus : — 

Plerosque velocitas et regi5 hostibus ignara ttitata sunt, 
their speed and the enemy's ignorance of the country saved 
most of them (Sail.). 

(2.) When the word with which the adjective would 
agree is implied in a possessive pronoun. Thus : — 

Sollus meum peccatum conrigi non potest, my sin only 
cannot be made good (Cic.) ; cf. pugna Romana stabilis suo 
pondere incumbentium in hostem, the fighting of the Romans 



200 SYNTAX. 

[was] invincible as they bore down upon the enemy with the 
very weight of their line (Llv.). 

348. Examples of similar agreement on the part of the 
relative are — 

(1.) Antecedent a collective word ; as : — 
Equitatum, qu5s mlserat, the cavalry, whom he had sent ; 
genus, qui jpremuntur, a class who are crushed (Cic). 

(2.) Antecedent not a collective word ; as : — 

Abundantia earum rerum, quae mortales prima putant, a 
plenty of those things which mankind imagine of the first im 
portance (Sail.). 

(3.) Antecedent implied in a possessive pronoun, or 
similar adjective ; as : — 

Nostrum consilium laudandum est, qui noluerim, my design 
is praiseworthy, who was unwilling (Cic). 

For the remaining syntax of adjectives and pronouns, see 438 fF. 

CASES (Casus-). 
NOMINATIVE (Nominatwus). 

349. Except as already treated (namely, as the subject 
of a verb or as an appositive or predicate noun), the nomi- 
native is used only as follows, and that rarely. 

(1.) In the poets. 

a. With an interjection, to make an exclamation ; as : — 
En ego, vester Ascanius, here am I, your Ascauius (Yerg., 

Ae., v., 672). 

b. Instead of the vocative ; as : — 

6 virfortis atque amicus, O brave man and friendly (Ter.). 

(2.) In the poets and late prose writers, as the mere 
name of a word independently of the construction of the 
sentence. Thus : — 

Resonent milu " Cynthia " sUvae, let the woods reecho me 
"Cynthia" (Prop., i., 18, 3l). 



NOMINATIVE AND GENITIVE CASES. 201 

GENITIVE (Genetwus). 
350. The genitive is properly the case which ex- 
presses the relation of one noun to another, and is in its 
nature equivalent to an adjective. 

Note. The genitive came to be used with certain adjectives and verbs, 
as well as with nouns. Its various uses may be thus tabulated : — 

SUBJECTIVE. OBJECTIVE. 

Genitive of Source, Cause, or Mate- With Nouns of Action or Feeling. 

rial. " Adjectives. 

Genitive of Possession. of Pity, etc. 

Partitive Genitive. " Feeling. 

Genitive of Characteristic. " Verbs" " Remembering, etc. 

" Accusing, etc. 
, Interest and Rcfert. 



Predicate Genitive. 

Genitive of Price 



351. Any noun limiting the meaning of another and 
not denoting the same thing is regularly put in the geni- 
tive. Thus : — 

Glorias amor, love of glory ; arma Achillis, the arms of 
Achilles ; nemorum cfistos, the guardian of groves. 

Note. The difference between an appositive and a limiting genitive is 
that the appositive denotes the same thing as the noun modified by it, 
while the genitive regularly denotes a different thing, although occasionally 
used like an appositive, as in vitium irae, urbs Romae. (Cf. 326.) 

352. Many relations which in English are expressed 
by prepositions are denoted in Latin by the genitive. 
Some of the commonest are — 

(1.) Source ; as, soils radii, the rays of the sun. 
(2.) Cause ; as, dolor podagrae, pain from the gout. 
(3.) Possession ; as, Caesaris domus, the house of 
Csesar. 

(4.) Material ; as, monies auri, mountains of gold. 

353. (1.) A genitive is called subjective when it de- 
notes the subject of an action or feeling implied in the 
noun it limits, or indicates that to which a thing belongs. 

(2.) It is called objective when it denotes the object 



202 SYNTAX. 

towards which the action or feeling implied in its noun is 
directed. Thus : — 

SUBJECTIVE. OBJECTIVE. 

virorum facta, deeds of men. odium viti, hatred of wrong. 

animl dolor, pain of spirit. virtutis amor, love of virtue. 

%ra Iunonis, the wrath of Juno, desiderium otl, a longing for 

rest. 

a. Sometimes the same expression may serve as either a 
subjective or an objective genitive, and the context must show 
which is meant. Thus : Caesaris amor may mean somebody's 
love for Caesar, or Caesar's love for somebody else. 

b. To avoid ambiguity, or to secure greater emphasis, a preposi- 
tion with its case is often used instead of the genitive ; as, odium 
erga Karthaginienses, hatred towards the Carthaginians. 

e. Two genitives are sometimes used with the same noun, one 
being usually subjective, the other objective. Thus : — 

Pro veteribus Hervetiorum iniuriis populi RomanL for 
the old wrongs of the Helvetians against the Roman people 
(Caes.) ; illius administratis provinciae, his performance of the 
duties of his office (Cic). 

d. The noun upon which a genitive depends is regularly 
omitted in certain idiomatic phrases ; as, ad Dianae, near 
Diana's temple ; sometimes in other expressions ; as, o miserae 
sortis ! O ye of unhappy lot ! solet mihi in mentem ventre illius 
temporis t the thought of that time is wont to come into my mind. 

e. Especially is it omitted in expressions of comparison where 
in English " that of " is used. Thus : — 

Numae regnum pacatius erat quam Romuli, Numa's reign 
was more peaceful than that of Romulus. 

Partitive Genitive. 

354. A word denoting a part is limited by the genitive 
of the whole whose part is taken. Thus : magnus 
hominum numerus, a large number of men. 

355. The partitive genitive is especially common 
with — 



PAKTITIVE GENITIVE. 203 

(1.) Numerals and nouns of number or quantity ; as : — 
Equitum centum qumquaginta interfecti, a hundred and 

fifty horsemen [were] killed (Curtius) ; permdgnum pondus 

argenti, a very great weight of silver. 

(2.) Adverbs denoting quantity or amount (used as 
nouns) ; as : — 

Satis eloquentiae, parum sapientiae, enough eloquence, but 
too little wisdom. 

(3.) Adverbs of place or direction ; as : — 

Ubi terrarum sumus ? where hi the world are we ? quo 
anientiae progressl estis, to what a pitch of madness have ye 
gone ? 

a. The word of direction is generally, as in the example, used 
figuratively. 

(4.) Comparatives and superlatives ; as : — 

Ordtorum praestantissimus, most famous of orators. 

(5.) Neuter pronouns and adjectives, where in English 
the adjective agrees with the noun ; as : — 

Plus eloquentiae, more eloquence ; tantum fidel, so much 
honor ; hoc aetdtis, at this time of life. 

a. Like partitive genitives are the redundant genitives adhuo 
locorum, till now (Plaut.) ; posted loci, afterwards (Sail.) ; in- 
tered loci, meanwhile (Ter.) ; etc. 

b. Pridie and postrldie are followed by a genitive which 
seems to be partitive in its nature; as, postrldie eius diet, 
the day after that day (Caes.) ; pridie Insididrum, the day be- 
fore the plot (Tac). 

Genitive of Characteristic or Quality. 

356. The genitive, with an adjective agreeing with it, 
is used to denote a property, quality, or characteristic. 
Thus : — 

Adulescens summae audaciae, a youth of the utmost daring 
(Sail.) ; fossa pedum viginti, a ditch twenty feet wide (Caes.). 



204 SYNTAX. 

Predicate Genitive. 

357. The genitive is often used in the predicate with 
sum and like verbs to denote the owner of something, or 
the person (or thing) whose duty, characteristic, or busi- 
ness a given thing is. Thus : — 

Haec domus est Caesaris, this house is Caesar's ; temeritas 
est fL5rentis aetatis, prudentia senectutis, rashness belongs 
to the bloom of life, discretion to old age (Cic.). 

Note. The predicate genitive bears the same relation to the direct 
genitive which a predicate noun hears to an appositive. 

Kindred Constructions. 

358. Instead of the foregoing genitives the following 
constructions are sometimes used : — 

(1.) Instead of a subjective genitive an adjective is 
often used, either agreeing directly with the noun on 
which the genitive would depend, or serving as a predicate 
adjective. Thus : — 

Amor patrius, a father's love ; non est mentiri rneum, it is 
not my habit to lie. 

a. An adjective less commonly takes the place of an objec- 
tive genitive ; as, metus hostllis, fear of the enemy. 

(2.) Instead of the possessive genitive of a personal 
pronoun, the corresponding possessive pronoun is almost 
invariably used ; as : — 

Liber meus, my book ; tuas litteras exspecto, I await a letter 
from you. (Cf. also the second example under 1.) 

a. The possessive pronoun is also sometimes used for an 
objective genitive ; as, mea iniuria, injury to me (Sallust). 

(3.) Instead of a possessive or objective genitive a 
dative of possession (see 384 below) is sometimes used. 
Thus : — 

Se tertium esse cui fatum foret urbis potirt, [that] he was 
the third whose destiny it was to be master of the city (Cic.) ; 



GENITIVE CASE. 205 

huic causae patronus exstitt, I have come forward as cham- 
pion of [for] this cause (Cic, Rose. Am., 2, 5). 

(4.) Instead of a partitive genitive a partitive apposi- 
tion (see 325, c, above) is used ; as : — 

Interfectores, pars in forum, pars Syracusas pergunt, 
some of the slayers proceed to the market place, others to Syra- 
cuse. 

(5.) Sometimes also, instead of a partitive genitive, an 
ablative with ex or de, or in, or an accusative with inter, 
is used ; as : — 

Nemo de els, no one of them ; acerrimus ex sensibus, the 
sharpest of the senses ; primus inter omnes, first among all. 

(6.) Instead of a genitive of characteristic an ablative 
of characteristic (see 411 below) is often used ; as : — 

Homo antlqua virtute, a man of old-time virtue. 

a. The genitive is used here in questions of number, measure, 
weight, time, space, kind, etc. ; as : — 

Filius annorum novem, a son nine years old; corona 
aurea parvi ponderis, a golden wreath of little weight ; 
huius modi quaestio, a question of this sort. 

b. The ablative is used of physical and external character- 
istics ; as : — 

Agesilaus statura fuit humill et corpore exiguo, Agesi- 
laus was of low stature and slight frame; homo maxima 
barba, a man with a very long beard ; flumen dimcili tran- 
situ rlpis^e praeruptis, a river of difficult passage and steep 
banks. 

c. Otherwise the two cases are used indifferently. 

Note. For the idiomatic accusative, in a few expressions, instead of a 
genitive of characteristic, see 398, b, below. For the genitive with opus 
and usus, see 417, a, below. 

Genitive with Adjectives. 
359. (1.) The genitive may be used to complete the 
meaning of certain adjectives. 



206 SYNTAX. 

(2.) In classical Latin these are chiefly adjectives de- 
noting DESIRE, KNOWLEDGE, MEMORY, PARTICIPATION, 

power, fullness, lie^ness, and their opposites. 

360. The adjectives most commonly used with the 
genitive are — 

avidus, greedy. memor, mindful. 

ciqndus, eager. immemor, unmindful. 

studiosus, zealous. particepjs, sharing in. 

fdstididsus, squeamish. compos, having control over. 

gnarus, knowing. consors, partaking. 

ignarus, ignorant. expers, having no part in. 

peritus, skilled. inops, needy. 

imperitus, unskilled. tnsuetiis, unaccustomed. 

prudens, discreet. msolens, unaccustomed. 

imjirudens, indiscreet. plenus, full. 

providus, foreseeing. inanis, empty. 

conscius, conscious of. similis, like. 

Inscius, ignorant. adfinis, allied to. 

rudis, untaught. 
Thus : — 

Avidus landis. eager for praise ; memor virtiitis, mindful of 
valor ; plena timoris, full of fear ; similis patris, like his 
father ; etc. 

a. Sallust and Livy began to use the genitive with adjectives 
more freely, and the Augustan poets spread the construction very 
widely ; cf. integer vltae, pure of life (Hor.) ; incertus senten- 
tiae, unstable in opinion. 

For animi, etc., with adjectives, see 426, b. 

361. Participles in -ns from transitive verbs, when used 
as adjectives and thus denoting enduring qualities, often 
take a genitive, while in their participial use they take the 
accusative. Thus : — 

Epamiriondas erat adeo veritatis diligens ut ne ioco 
quidem mentiretur, Epaminondas was so devoted to truth that 
he would not lie even in jest ; semper adpetentes glSriae 



GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES AND VERBS. 207 

fuistis, you have always been eager for glory ; but mare, ter- 
rain adpetens, aiming at possession of the sea and land (on a 
given occasion). 

Kindred Constructions. 

362. Instead of a genitive, many of these adjectives 
sometimes take other constructions ; as : — 

(1.) An accusative with a preposition. Thus : — 
Avidus in dlreptiones, greedy for expeditions of plunder 

( Liv y)- 

(2.) An ablative with a preposition. Thus : — 

Peritus de agricultura, skilled in husbandry (Varro). 

(3.) An ablative of specification (see 412). Thus : — 

Praestans ingenio, preeminent in natural endowment (Cic). 

(4.) A dative. Thus : — 

Lupd similis, like a wolf. 

a. Similis and dissimilis seem to be used by Cicero with the 
genitive usually in speaking of persons, with the dative always 
in speaking of things. 

Genitive with Verbs. 

363. The genitive is also used with several classes of 
verbs, as follows : — 

364. (1.) Verbs denoting pity — as misereor and 
miseresco — take the genitive. Thus : — 

Miseremini sociorum, have pity for your allies (Cic.) ; mise- 
rescite regis, pity the king (Verg.). 

(2.) The impersonals miseret, paenitet, piget, puclet, 
and taedet, take the genitive of the object towards which 
the feeling is exercised, and the accusative of the person 
who has the feeling. Thus : — 

Mea mater, tui me miseret, mei piget, mother, I pity 
you and am disgusted with myself (Accius) ; eos ineptiarum 
paenitet, they repent of their follies (Cic.) ; me elvitatis 



208 SYNTAX. 

mdrum piget taedetpie, I am disgusted and weary with the 
manners of the state (Sail.). 

365. Verbs of remembering and forgetting — as me- 
mini, reminiscor, obliviscor — take the genitive. Thus : — 

Memini vivorum, I remember the living (Cic.) ; reminisci 
veteris famae, to bear in mind the old reputation (Nop.); iniu- 
riarum obliviscor, I forget injuries (Nep.). 

a. One verb of pitying and one of remembering commonly 
take the accusative ; namely, miserari and recordari (both depo- 
nents of the first conjugation). 

b. Other verbs of these classes occasionally take the accusative, 
especially of a neuter pronoun. 

366. Verbs of reminding and warning take a geni- 
tive of the thing with an accusative of the person. 
Thus : — 

Admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae, he would 
remind one of his want of money, another of his pet passion 
(Sail.). 

367. Verbs of ACCUSING, CONVICTING, condemning, 
and acquitting, take a genitive of the crime or of the 
penalty. Thus : — 

Miltiades accusatus est pr5ditionis, Miltiades was ac- 
cused of treachery ; Cicero Verrem avaritiae nimiae coarguit, 
Cicero accused Verres of excessive greed; iam me ipse iner- 
tiae condemns, I already condemn myself for my inactivity ; 
Caelius index absolvit iniuriarum eum, qui Lucilium laese- 
rat, Caelius as juryman voted to acquit of wrong the man who 
had injured Lucilius. 

a. The genitive is used to indicate the penalty when it is an 
indefinite sum of money as a fine. The genitives capitis, pecu- 
niae, capitoMs poenae, voti, and some others, are also used in a 
sort of midway sense between charge and penalty. Thus : — 

Quanti est damnatus, how much was he fined ? capitis 
hominem innocentem condemnarunt, they condemned a guiltless 
man to death (cf. Cic, de Or., i., 54, 233). 



GENITIVE WITH VERBS. 209 

b. The penalty is otherwise expressed by the ablative (always 
with multare or when it is & fixed sum of money as a fine), or 
by ad or in with an accusative, and, in the poets, rarely by a 
dative. 

c. The verbs of the last two classes (366 and 367) some- 
times take, instead of the genitive, an ablative with de or the 
accusative of a neuter pronoun. Thus : — 

De aede Telluris me admones, you remind me about the 
temple of the Earth (Cic.) ; eos hoc moned, I warn them of 
this (Cic.) ; aceusare de neglegentia, to accuse of negligence 
(Cic.) ; de vi condemnati sunt, they were condemned for vio- 
lence (Cic.) ; si id me non accusas, if you do not accuse me of 
this (Plaut.).* 

d. Some verbs of accusing, etc., take simply the accusative of 
the crime instead of the accusative of the person with the geni- 
tive of the crime. So especially carpo, culfio, criminor, punio, 
rejorehendo, and some less common verbs. 

Interest and Refert. 

368. The impersonal verbs interest and refert take a 
genitive of the person (or personified thing) whose in- 
terest they denote. Thus : — 

Interest omnium recte facere, to do right is everybody's 
concern (Cic). 

Refert omnium animadverfi in maids, all men are inter- 
ested in having the bad punished (Tac). 

a. So far as there is a difference in the two verbs, refert ap- 
plies rather to outside or material things, interest to matters of 
the mind or character. Cf. the examples. 

Note. This genitive seems to have started with interest as a sort of 
predicative genitive of possession (patris interest = it is among- a father's 
possessions), and then to have been transferred to refert through the anal- 
ogy in the meanings of the verbs. 

369. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, 

* With verbs of accusing, etc, the neuter pronoun in the accusative is 
mostly found in the dramatic poets. 



210 SYNTAX. 

the ablative singular feminine of the corresponding pos- 
sessives is used. Thus : — 

Tua et mea maxime interest, te vo.lere, it is very greatly 
for the interest of both you and myself that you should be well 
(Cic.) ; mea nihil refert, it is of no concern to me (Ter.). 

a. The ablative feminine of the possessive pronoun is com- 
mon with refert ; the genitive construction is said to occur be- 
fore Livy only in one instance in Sallust {lug.. Ill) Cicero 
prefers interest to refert, and uses it with either construction in- 
differently. 

Xote. The origi# of this ablative construction is still in dispute. It 
seems most probable that the construction started with refert as mea re 
fert, equivalent to e vied refert, it points in the direction of my interests, 
(ef. e re publico, est. it is in accordance with the interests of the state), 
and was then transferred to interest. But see J. H. Schmalz, in Handbuch 
der Altertumswiss., ii., 271. 

b. Instead of the above constructions is sometimes found ad 
with an accusative, and very rarely a simple accusative or a 
dative. Thus : — 

Ad honor em meum interest, it concerns my reputation (Cic.) ; 
quid te igitur rettulit, of what concern was that to you ? 
(Plant.) 

370. (1.) The degree of interest is expressed by an 
adverb or the accusative singular neuter of an adjective 
(used adverbially), or, if there is no genitive of the person 
interested, by a genitive (of price ; see 371). 

(2.) That which causes the interest is expressed by a 
clause as the subject of the verb or in apposition with a 
neuter pronoun which serves as subject. Refert also 
sometimes takes a personal subject. Thus : — 

Maxime interest, quern ad modum quaeque res audiatur. it 
makes the greatest difference, how each point is received ; 
multum interest re'i familidris tuae, te quam primum venire, 
it is of much importance for your property that you come as 
soon as possible ; quod, permagnl interest, pro necessario saepe 
habetur, what is of great advantage is often regarded as neces- 
sary. 



GENITIVE OF PRICE. — DATIVE. 211 

For the genitive instead of an ablative with verbs of ceasing- or freeing 
from, see 414 ; with verbs of plenty, see 409; with potior, see 419, b ; 
for the locative animi with verbs of emotion, see 426, b. 

Genitive of Price. 

371. The genitive is used to denote indefinite price or 
value. Thus : — 

Voluptatem virtus minimi facit, virtue holds pleasure of 
very little value ; eml hortos tanti, quantl volui, I bought the 
grounds for the price I wished. 

372. The genitives most commonly so used are — 

tanti, so much. permagni, ) 

,_ , , 7 _ . - ( at a very high 

quanti, as much, or how plurimi, > J & 

much ? maximl, ) ^ 

plUris, more. tantidem, at the same price. 

minoris, less. quantwis, ) however much 

minimi, very little. quantilubet, ) you please. 

parvi, little. quanticumque, at whatever 

magni, at a high price. price. 

And rarely mult'i, much, and maioris, at a higher price. 

a. In colloquial language also figuratively — 

assis, worth an as. pill, worth a hair. 

Jiocci, " a bit of wool. pensi, " weighing. 

nauci, " a trifle. terunci, " a copper. 

nihill, " nothing. 

And huius (indicating a gesture of disdain). 

For the Ablative of Price, see 408. 

DATIVE (Dativus). 

373. The dative is used chiefly to indicate the person 
or thing indirectly concerned in the action of a verb, and 
for other similar relations. 

Note. The uses of the dative may be summarized as follows : — 
Dative of Indirect Object. Dative of Possessor. 

Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage. Dative of Service. 
Ethical Dative. Dative with Adjectives. 

Dative of Agent. Dative with other Parts of Speech. 



212 SYNTAX. 



Dative of Indirect Object. 

374. The dative expressing the indirect object may- 
be used — 

(1.) "With intransitive verbs. Thus : — 

Mea domus tibi patet, my house is open to you (Cic.) ; licet 
nemini contra patriam ducere exercitum, no one has a right to 
lead an army against his country (Cic). 

(2.) With transitive verbs in addition to the direct object. 
Thus : — 

Hoc tibi promltto, I promise you this (Cic.) ; mihi respon- 
sum dedit, he gave me the answer (Verg.). 

375. Several classes of verbs which seem transitive in 
English are intransitive in Latin, and therefore take their 
object in the dative. 

376. Such are most verbs meaning to favor, please, 
TRUST, believe, help, and their opposites ; also to COM- 
MAND, OBEY, SERVE, RESIST, ENVY, THREATEN, SPARE, 
PARDON, BE ANGRY, etc. Thus : — 

Ilia tibi f avet, she favors you (Ovid) ; mini placebat Pom- 
ponius, Pomponius pleased me (Cic.) ; qui sibl fidit, he who 
trusts in himself (Hor.) ; iniurato, scio,plus mini credet quam 
iurdto tibi, he will, I know, trust me without an oath more than 
you upon oath (Plant., Am., i., 1, 281) ; non licet sul com- 
modi causa nocere alter!, it is not lawful to injure one's neigh- 
bor for one's own advantage (Cic.) : imperat aut servit collecta 
pecunia caique, gathered gold commands or serves its posses- 
sor (lit., each one) (Hor.) ; qiioriiam f action! iiiwilcoinim vesis- 
tere neqiiiverit, since he could not withstand the faction of his 
enemies (Sail.) ; non invidetur ill! aetati. that time of life is 
not exposed to envy (Cic.) ; mihi minubcttur, he threatened 
me (Cic.) ; bonis nocet quisquis parcit malls, he wrongs the 
good who spares the wicked ; irclscl inimicis, to be angry 
against one's enemies (Caes.). 

a. Iuvo, help, and its compounds; laedo. injure; delecto, 



DATIVE OF INDIKECT OBJECT. 213 

oblecto, delight, and sometimes other verbs of these meanings, 
are treated as transitives and take the accusative. Thus : 

Caesar ad Lingonas litter as nuntiosque misit, ne eos fru- 
mento neve alia re iuvarent, Caesar sent a letter and messages 
to the Lingones [bidding them] not to aid them with grain or 
anything else (Caes., B. G., i., 26) ; Me pulvis oculum meum 
laedit, this dust hurts my eye. 

377. (1.) Verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, 
ante, com, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, com- 
monly have intransitive meanings, and therefore take a 
dative of indirect object. Thus : — 

Neque enim adsentior iis, for I do not agree with those 
(Cic, Am., 4, 13) ; quantum natura hominis pecudibus ante- 
cedit, as much as man's nature has the advantage over the 
brutes (Cic, Off., i., 30, 105) ; omnibus neg5tiis rion inter- 
fuit solum seal praefuit, he not only took part in, but presided 
over, all the transactions (Cic, Fam., i., 6) ; nee umquam SUG- 
cumbet inimlcis, nor will he ever yield to his foes (Cic, 
Deiot., 13, 36). 

(2.) But not infrequently they are transitive, and then take 
(like any transitive verb) a direct object in the accusative, 
with or without the dative of indirect object. Thus : — 

Convocat milites, he calls together the soldiers ; munus 
obire, to perform a duty (Cic, Am., 27) ; ilium praefecit exer- 
citui, he set him over the army. 

(3.) Sometimes they are used to denote relations of place, 
and then they take a preposition with its case instead of the 
dative.* Thus : — 

Inferre signa in hostes, to march against the enemy ; ad- 
esse in senatu, to be at a meeting of the senate. 

378. Several verbs take the dative in one sense, the 
accusative in another. Thus, especially : — 

* This is especially common with words compounded with ad or in. When 
used figuratively all these words usually take the dative (or, if transitive, 
the accusative ; as, subire perlcula, to undergo danger). 



L4 


SYNTAX. 






With Dative. 


With Accusative. 


metuere, ) 
timere, ) 


fear, be anxious, for 


be afraid of somebody 


somebody or some- 


or something. 




thing. 




consulere, 


take counsel for. 


ask advice of, consult. 


prospicere, 
providere, 


> provide for. 


foresee. 


cavere, 


take care for, guard. 


guard against. 


moderari, 


control. 


regulate, arrange. 


temperare^ 


restrain. 


temper (by mixing). 



379. Dono, present, circumdd, surround, and ad- 
spergo, sprinkle or scatter upon, take either a dative of 
the person with an accusative of the thing, or an accusa- 
tive of the person with an ablative of the thing. Thus : — 

Mini librum donavit, he presented a book to me ; me libro 
donavit, he presented me with a book. 

Urbi murum circumdat, he puts a wall round the city ; ur- 
bem muro circumdat, he surrounds the city with a wall. 

Arae sanguinem adspergit, he sprinkles blood upon the 
altar ; aram sanguine adspergit, he sprinkles the altar with 
blood. 

380. Mauy verbs compounded with ah, de, ex, pro, or 
circum, and the verb ademo, take a dative where an abla- 
tive of separation (see 413) might be expected. Thus : — 

Bona mini extorsisti. you have wrung my goods from me ; 
mulieri anulum detraxit, he took the ring from the woman 
(i. e., her finger) ; id mihi tu, C. Verves, eripuisti atque 
abstulisti, this you have robbed me of and taken from me, 
Gaius Verres (Cic, in Caecil., 5, 19). 

a. The dative is always used of persons and sometimes of 
things. The action is thus regarded as something done to the 
object. 

b. But with things the ablative with or without a preposition 
is perhaps more common, especially if an idea of place is in- 
volved. Thus : — 



DATIVE OF ADVANTAGE OR DISADVANTAGE. 215 

Ilium e periculo eripuit, he snatched him from the danger 
(Caes., B. G., iv., 12). 

Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage 

(Dativus commodi vel incommodi). 

381. With many verbs the dative denotes the person 
or thing to whose advantage or disadvantage something is 
done. Thus : — 

Non scholae seel vitae discimus, we learn, not for school, 
but for life ; non solum nobis divites esse volumus, sed liberis, 
propmquls, amicls maximeque rei publicae, not for our- 
selves only do we wish to be rich, but for our children, rela- 
tives, friends, and, most of all, for the state. 

a. So nubere alicui, marry (lit., veil one's self for), vacare 
allcui rei, have leisure for, and expressions like quid tibi vis ? 
what are you after ? (lit. what do you want for yourself ?) ; quid 
huic homini facias ? what can you do with (for) this fellow ? 
(But cf. 412, a.) 

b. So also the dative of a participle in expressions defining 
a place, as : — 

Locum, qui nunc saeptus descendentibus inter duos lucos 
est, asylum aperti, he opened as a place of refuge the spot 
which you find hedged in as you go down between the Two 
Groves (Liv., i., 8, 5). 

Ethical Dative (Dativus ethicus). 

382. A special variety of the dative of advantage is 
the use of a personal pronoun in lively style to indicate 
the person interested, where the sense strictly requires no 
such pronoun. Thus : — 

Utinam ille omnes secum suas copias eduxisset I Tongilium 
mini eduxit, would that he had taken out all his forces with 
him ! He has taken (me) Tongilius (Cic, Cat., ii., 2, 4) ; at 
tibi repente paucis post diebus venit ad me Caninius, but a 
few days later Caninius suddenly comes to me (Cic, Fam., ix., 
2,1). 



216 



SYNTAX. 



Dative of Agent {DaOwus agentis). 

383. T\ ith the gerundive and sum the dative denotes 
the person who has a thing to do. Thus : — 

Adhibenda est nobis dV.igentia. we must employ diligence 
(Cic.): certe mini verendum rion erat. /ze ^- - ' hoc pan i la 
dvium i?£terfec£o, invidiae mihi in posteritatem red 
I certainly did not have to fear that if I killed this murderer 
of his countrymen, any flood of unpopularity would rise up. 
about me in the future (Cic. Cat.. I. 12. 29); nobis. : 
semel occidit brevis lax. nox esbperpetua wna dormienda. we 
have to sleep through one long lasting night, vrhen once our 
life's brief day is o'er (Catull.). 

a. To avoid a possible ambiguity, or to give the notion of 
agency greater prominence, the ablative with ah [a.) must be 
used : as : — 

A " hu& est a vobis consulendum. 

citizens' property is involved, and you must take measures for 
its protection ; te a me monendum esse puto, I think I 
ought to remind you. 

b. The dative cf agent is also sometimes used vrfth the tenses 
compounded with the perfect participle. Thus : — 

Haec satis sint dicta nobis, let that which I have said suf- 
fice (Cic. Tim., 10). 

Dative or Possessor. 

384. The dative is used with sum to denote the pos- 
sessor.* — the thing owned beino- the subject of the verb. 
Thus : — 

Sit mihi rriensa trh's. let me have a three-legged table 
CHor.. Sat.) L, 3. 13) : est igitur homini led simil ~:~~. 

man has therefore a likeness with God (Cic. L~gg.. i.. S. 25 . 

a. The historians sometimes join volenti. cwpienM, or invito, 
with such a dative, in imitation of a Greek idiom : as : — 

* Cf. predicate genitive of possession. 357, 



DATIVE WITH VERBS, AND WITH ADJECTIVES. 217 

Tit quibusque helium invltis aut cupientibus erat, ac- 
cording as war was repugnant or acceptable to each. 

Dative of Service. 

385. With many verbs the dative denotes the end or 
PURPOSE of an action. Thus : — 

Virtus neque datur d5no neque accipitur, virtue is neither 
given as a gift nor received. 

386. The dative of service is most commonly joined 
with another dative, especially a dative of advantage or 
a dative of possessor (dative to which and for which). 
Thus: — 

Id tibi honSri, habetur, that is counted an honor to you 
(Cie.) ; mini maximae est curae, it is a very great anxiety 
to me (Cic.) ; spero n5bis hanc coniunctionem voluptati fore, 
I hope this association will be a pleasure to us (Cic.) ; cui bond 
fuit, whom did it benefit ? (lit., to whom was it (for) a benefit ?) 
(Cic). (Cf. 331, 1.) 

Impersonal Use of Passives. 

387. Verbs which take a dative can be used in the 
passive only impersonally, and the dative is then retained. 
Thus : — 

Mini numqiiam persuader! potuit animos emori, I never 
could be persuaded that the soul perishes ; invidetur prae- 
stantl florentlque fortunae, prominent and flourishing success 
is envied. 

Dative with Adjectives. 

388. The dative is used with many adjectives to de- 
note the object towards which the quality is directed. 

389. Such are especially adjectives meaning useful, 

PLEASANT, FRIENDLY, FIT, LIKE, INCLINED, READY, EASY, 

clear, equal, and their opposites ; also those meaning 



218 SYNTAX. 

near, many compounded with com-, and adjectives in 
-bilis. Thus : — 

Felix tuts, gracious to your adherents (Verg.) ; ordtio in- 
grata Gallis, a speech unpleasing to the Gauls (Caes.) ; nihil 
tarn est Lysiae dlversum quam Isocrates, nothing is so differ- 
ent from Lysias as Isocrates ; patri similis, like his father 
(Cic.) ; promptus seditioni, ready for insurrection (Tac.) ; 
cuivis facile est, it is easy for anybody (Ter.) ; falsa veris 
fmitima sunt, the false is next door to the true (Cic.) ; mors 
est terribilis iis, quorum cum vita omnia exstinguuntur, death 
is terrible to those who lose all things when they lose their life 
(Cic, Par., ii.). 

390. Instead of the dative, many of these adjectives are 
also used with a preposition and its case. Especially : — 

(1.) Adjectives meaning useful or fit, and their opposites, 
take an accusative with ad when they mean useful for, fit for, 
etc., the dative being commoner if they mean useful to, etc. 
Thus : — 

Utilis agris, beneficial to the fields (Juv.) ; homo ad nullam 
rem utilis, a man useful for nothing (Cic). 

(2.) Adjectives implying motion or tendency more com- 
monly take the accusative with a preposition. Thus : — 
Promts ad fidem, readily inclined to faithfulness (Liv.). 

(3.) Adjectives of feeling often have an accusative with 
in, erga, or adversus. Thus : — 

Mater acerba in suos partus, a mother harsh to her own 
offspring (Ovid) ; grains erga me, grateful towards me (Cic.) ; 
gratum adversus te, grateful towards you (Cic). 

(4.) Propior and proximus sometimes take an accusative, 
like the primitive prope. Thus : — 

Quod vitium propius virtutem erat, and this fault was 
pretty nearly a virtue (Sail.) ; P. Crassus proximus mare 
Oceanum hiemarat, Publius Crassus had wintered close by the 
ocean (Caes., B. G., iii., 7). 

Cf. also 362. 



DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE CASES. 219 

Dative with Other Parts of Speech. 

391. The dative is sometimes found with other parts 
of speech, to express the same sort of relation as with 
verbs or adjectives. Thus : — 

(1.) With adverbs : 

Congruenter naturae convenienter^we vivere, to live in 
Harmony and agreement with nature (Cic.) ; proxime castris, 
next the camp (Caes., B. C, i., 72, 5). 

(2.) With a few (verbal) nouns : — 

Obtemperatio legibus, obedience to the laws (Cic, Legg., i., 
15) ; invidia consult, envy towards the consul (Sail.). 

(3.) With interjections : — 

Vae victis ! no quarter ! (lit., woe to the vanquished) ; hei 
mihi misero ! alas ! unhappy me ! 

(4.) The compound expression dicto audiens, obedient, 
takes a second dative, as : — 

Dicto audientes esse regi debebant, they ought to be obe- 
dient to their king. 

ACCUSATIVE (Accusativus). 
Note. The uses of the accusative may he summarized as f ollo-ws : — 

Accusative of Direct Ohject. 

r Verhs of Making-, etc. 
Two Accusatives < " " Asking, etc. 

v " compounded with Trans, etc. 
Accusative with Middle Voice. 
Cognate Accusative. 
Adverbial Accusative. 

Accusative of Specification (Synecdochical). 
Accusative with Verbal Nouns. 
Accusative in Exclamations. 
Subject Accusative. 
Accusative of Time. 
" Place. 
" with Prepositions. 



220 SYNTAX. 

Accusative of Direct Object. 

392. The accusative is used especially to denote the 
person or thing directly affected by an action. There- 
fore only transitive verbs have an object in the accusative. 
Thus : — 

Legatos mlttunt, they send ambassadors (Caes.) ; animus 
movet corpus, the mind moves the body (Cic.) ; da veniam 
hanc, grant this indulgence (Ter.). 

Note. Many verbs are transitive in Latin which are intransitive in 
English. Indeed, in early Latin very many verbs which were afterwards 
used with other constructions could take an accusative, the accusative fill- 
ing 1 with regard to the verb the same place which a genitive fills towards 
the noun it modifies. 

393. The accusative of the active voice becomes the 
subject-nominative of the passive voice. Thus : — 

Legatos mittunt ; legati mittuntur. 

a. Verbs therefore which admit no accusative can be used 
in the passive only impersonally. (C£. 387, and 194.) 

b. Occasionally the subject of a dependent clause is antici- 
pated in the main clause as the object of its verb, though this 
is much less common than in Greek. Thus : — 

Meam uxorem . . . nescis, quails sit, you don't know 
what sort of a person my wife is (Plaut., Asin., 59). 

Note. The anticipated subject is sometimes in other constructions than 
that of object-accusative ; as : — 

Quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint 

leves, it is often shown in small matters of money what weak 

characters some people have (Cic, Am., 17, 63). 

Two Accusatives. 

394. Certain classes of verbs take two accusatives. 
Thus: — 

(1.) Many verbs which in the passive voice take a predi- 
cate nominative (cf. 328, 3), especially verbs meaning to 

MAKE, CALL, CHOOSE, RENDER, ESTEEM, RECKON. Thus : 

Me consulem fecistis, you have made me consul (Cic.) ; 



TWO ACCUSATIVES. 221 

Irani bene Ennius initium dixit insaniae, Ennius has well 
called anger the beginning of madness (Cic.) : Sulpicium ac- 
cusatorem suum numerabat non competitorem, he reck- 
oned Sulpicius Ins accuser, not his rival (Cic, Mur., 24, 49). 

a. One accusative is the direct object, the other a predicate 
accusative. 

b. Instead of the predicate accusative the same " kindred 
constructions " sometimes occur as for a predicate nominative 
(see 331 above). Cf. also the following : — 

Fortuna me, qui liber fiteram, servom fecit, e summo in- 
fimum, fortune has made me who was free a slave, [changing 
me] from the highest to the lowest (Plaut.). 

(2.) Verbs of asking, demanding, teaching, and 
celare, to hide, take an accusative of the person with 
another accusative of the thing. Thus : — 

Hoc te vehementer rogo, this I ask you urgently (Cic.) ; 
posce deos veniam,* ask indulgence of the gods (Verg.) ; 
cum legent quis nmsicam docuerit Epaminondam, when 
they read who taught Epaminondas music (Nep.) ; Antigonus 
iter omnes celat, Antigonus hides his journey from all (Nep.). 

a. The following verbs of asking (and occasionally others) 
take an ablative with ab, de, or ex, instead of the accusative 
of the person : exigere, petere, postulare, (ab) ; qitaerere, (ex or 
de) ; scitari, sciscitciri. Thus : — 

Tacem ab Romanis petere, to ask peace of the Romans 
(Caes.). 

b. Instead of the accusative of the thing, an ablative with de, 
or with verbs of teaching an ablative of means (see 407, b), is 
sometimes used. Thus : — 

Sic ego te eisdem de rebus interrogem, I would thus ques- 
tion you on the same points (Cic.) ; de itinere hostium sena- 
tum edocet, he informs the senate of the enemy's march (Sail.) ; 
Bassus noster me de hoc libro celavit, my friend Bassus 

* The difference in sense between the two accusatives here and in ex- 
pressions like filiam tuam mihi uxorem p5sco, I ask your daughter as 
wife, should be observed. 



222 SYNTAX. 

kept me in ignorance about this book (Cic.) ; aliquem fidibus 
docere, to teach some one [to play on] the lyre (Cic). 

e. In the passive the accusative of the person becomes sub- 
ject and the accusative of the thing remains ; as : — 

Rogatus est sententiam, he was asked his opinion. 

(3.) Verbs compounded with trans, ad, or circum 
sometimes take two accusatives, one depending upon the 
verb, the other upon the preposition. Thus : — 

Omnem equitatum pontem transdiicit, he led all his cav- 
alry across the bridge (Caes.) ; Petreius ius iurandum adigit 
Afranium, Petreius bound Afranius by an oath (Caes.) ; Ros- 
cillum Pompeius omnia sua praesidia circumduxit, Pom- 
pey took Roscillus all around his garrisons (Caes.). 

Accusative with Middle Voice. 

395. A few verbs, seemingly deponent or passive but 
really remnants of a middle voice (see 193, a), take an 
accusative of direct object. Thus : — 

Priamus inutile ferrum cingitur, Priam girds on his un- 
availing sword (Verg.) ; viridi membra sub arbuto stratus, 
stretching his limbs under a green arbutus tree (Hor., Odes, i., 1). 

a. This construction is especially common with certain perfect 
participles, as in the second example. 

Cogxate Accusative. 

396. Some verbs not otherwise transitive take, as in 
English, an accusative with a meaning kindred to their 
own (Cognate Accusative). Thus : — 

Vitam iucundam vTvere, to live a merry life (Plaut.) ; iu- 
ravi verissimum ius iurandum, I have sworn an inviolable 
oath (Cic). 

a. The cognate accusative usually has an adjective agreeing 
with it, as in the examples. 

b. The degree in which the meanings of the verb and the ac- 
cusative are kindred varies a good deal. In the poets the con- 



ACCUSATIVE CASE. 223 

struction became pretty widely expanded. Cf. the following ex- 
amples : — 

Coire soeietatem, to form an alliance (Cic, Hose. Am., 7, 20) ; 
vincere indicium,* to win a suit ; saltare Cyclopa, to dance the 
Cyclops (Hor., Sat., i., 5, 63) ; baechanalia vwere, to live a 
riotous life (Iuv., ii., 3). 

Adverbial Accusative. 

397. The adverbial use of the accusative to denote in 
what respect or to what degree an action is exerted, is 
really a variety of cognate accusative. Thus : — 

Nihil labor o, I have no difficulty ; illud valde tibi adsentior, 
on that point I agree with you emphatically (Cic.) ; Suebl 
maximam partem lacte atque pecore vlvunt, the Suebi live 
for the most part on milk and meat. 

Accusative of Specification. 

398. The accusative is sometimes used to specify the 
part to which the meaning of a verb or an adjective ap- 
plies. Thus : — 

Eqims tremit artus, the horse trembles in his limbs (Verg.) ; 
clari genus, illustrious in birth (Tac.) ; animum incensus, 
fired in his soul (Liv.). 

a. This construction is also called the synecdochical accu- 
sative. It is rare except in the poets, and is chiefly confined to 
the parts of the body. The use treated under 395 is often 
wrongly regarded as accusative of specification. 

b. Here belongs perhaps the idiomatic use of the accusative 
in such expressions as : — 

Sets me aliquid id genus solitum scrlbere, you know I am 
in the habit of writing something of the sort; id aetdtis, of or 
at that age ; id temporis, at that time. 

Accusative with Verbal Nouns, etc. 

399. Some verbal nouns and verbal adjectives in 

* This is a direct imitation of the Greek. 



224 SYNTAX. 

-bundus take an accusative, like the transitive verbs from 
which they are derived. Thus : — 

Quid tibi hue receptio ad te est meum virum, wherefore 
do you receive my v husband hither to you ? (Plaut.) ; Hanno 
vltabundus castra hostium consules^e, Hanno shunning 
the consuls and the camp of the enemy (Liv.). 

a. This use is chiefly confined to colloquial and late Latin. 

Accusative in Exclamations. 

400. In exclamations the noun or pronoun which marks 
the object of the feeling is put in the accusative, with or 
without an interjection. Thus : — 

Hominem gravem et civem egregium ! a solid man and 
admirable citizen (Cic.) ; miseram me (Ter.) ; pro deum homi- 
numque fidem, by the honor of gods and men (Cic.) ; en 
quattuor aras, lo four altars ! (Verg.). 

Subject Accusative. 

401. The subject of an infinitive is put in the accusa- 
tive. Thus : — 

Moleste Pompeium id ferre constabat, it was believed that 
Pompey took that to heart (Cic.) ; campos iubet esse jmtentes, 
orders that the fields be open (Verg.). 

For the subject of the Historical Infinitive see 530, a. 

For the accusative with propior and proximus, see 390, 4. 

For the accusative with prepositions, see 429, 431. 

For the accusative in constructions of Place and Time, see 423, 425 ff. 

VOCATIVE (Vocativus). 

402. The vocative is used only to address a person 
or thing. Thus : — 

Vincere sets, Hannibal, victoria utl nescis, you know how 
to conquer, Hannibal, but you know not how to make use of 
victory ; Quintili Vare, legiones redde, Quintilius Varus, give 
back [my] legions ; o fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtu- 



VOCATIVE AND ABLATIVE CASES. 225 

tis Homerum praeconem inveneris ! O happy youth, who hast 
found a herald of thy valor in Homer ! (Cic, Arch., 10, 24). 

a. The interjection o ! is used in prose only for deeply emo- 
tional address, as in the last example. 

b. Other interjections are sometimes used, especially pro ! in 
calling upon the gods. Thus : — 

Pro sancte Iuppiter / O holy Jupiter ! 

c. A predicate word is sometimes in the Augustan poets made 
to agree with a vocative instead of the nominative. Thus : — 

Quibus, Hector, ab oris, exspectate vents, from what shores, 
Hector, dost thou, long looked for, come? (Verg., Ae., ii., 282). 

Note. Properly speaking-, the vocative is hardly a ease at all. The 
similarity of its function with that of the nominative, hoth serving- to name 
an object, accounts for the identity of form which, except in the singular 
of masculine and feminine O- stems with nominatives in -us, is everywhere 
shown by the two cases. (See 90, 3.) 

ABLATIVE (AUatwus). 

403. The ablative may be called the adverbial case, 
that is, it expresses various modifications of the predicate 
which in English are expressed by adverbs or by preposi- 
tional phrases.* It is therefore used chiefly with verbs 
and adjectives. 

Note. To a still greater degree than with the other oblique cases is it 
difficult to trace any single principle in the various uses of the ablative. 
It has been a common theory that the original use was to denote separa- 
tion, but the better opinion is that such is not the case. In the following 
arrangement each of the first two groups contains uses which seem pretty 
nearly allied to each other, though it will be observed that the last 
member of the first group (ablative of plenty) might just as well be 
reckoned in the second group. The special uses comprising group 3 can 
all be traced to individual uses under groups 1 and 2. The last group 
contains those uses in which it is most difficult to trace any bond of con- 
nection. 

* The ablative had absorbed into itself the uses of the old instrumental 
and most of those of the locative. We have seen (90, note) that some 
of its forms are derived from these cases. The other uses of the loca- 
tive passed over to the genitive or the dative. 



226 SYNTAX. 

Uses of the Ablative. 

1. Ablative of Cause. 

Source. 

Agent. 

Means or Instrument. 

Way by wbieh. 

Price. 

Plenty. 

Manner or Accompaniment. 

Characteristic or Quality. 

2. Ablative of Specification. 

Separation. 

Want. 

Degree of Difference. 

With Comparatives. 

f Opus and Usus. 
Digitus, etc. 

3. Ablative in certain special expressions -j Utor, Fruor, etc. 

Nitor, etc. 
Adsuesco, etc. 

4. Ablative Absolute. 

of Time. 
" Place, 
with Prepositions. 

Ablative of Cause (Ablativus causae). 

404. The ablative indicates the cause of a thing in 
the widest sense. It thus indicates — 

(1.) An external cause ; as : — 

Hostes frumenti inopia conloquium petwerunt, the enemy 
asked for a conference, on account of their want of grain. 

(2.) An internal cause ; as : — • 

Noll putare pigritia me id facer e, do not think that I do 
so from laziness. 

(3.) That in consequence of which or in accordance 
with which something takes place ; as : — 

Diversis duobus vitiis, avaritia et luxuria, cwitas Rd- 
mana labovabat, the Roman state was suffering from two oppo- 
site defects, greed and extravagance ; amtci amicorum dolore 



ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, AND OF SOUKCE. 227 

maerent, friends are saddened by each other's pain ; mstituto 
suo Caesar capias suds eduxit, Caesar led out his forces in 
accordance with his custom ; tanta caritds patriae est, ut earn 
non sensti nostro sed salute ipsius metiamur, so great is 
our love of country that we measure it not by our feeling, but by 
her own welfare (Cic, Tusc, L, 37) ; mllites fessl labore, 
dux anxius curls, the soldiers worn out with hardship, the gen- 
eral troubled with his cares. 

a. Cause is also sometimes expressed by prepositions ; as ; — 
Legibus propter metum paret, he obeys the laws because 

of fear ; ne ob earn rem ipsos despiceret, [they begged] him 
not to despise them on that account. 

b. The ablatives causa and gratia (sometimes also ergo) are 
used with a genitive or a possessive pronoun to denote " for the 
sake of ; " as : — 

Et mea et rel publicae causa, for my sake and that of the 
state. 

c. "Words of emotion, etc., also sometimes take the ablative 
with de, ex, a, In ; as : — 

Laetari victoria (or in victoria), to be glad at one's vic- 
tory; gloriari de (or in) suis divitiis, to boast of one's 
wealth ; laborare ex aere alieno, ab re frumentaria, to 
suffer under debt, from want of provisions. 

Ablative of Source. 
405. The ablative is used, chiefly with perfect parti- 
ciples, to denote birth or origin. Thus : — 

Tantald prognatus, descended from Tantalus ; eddem patre 
ndtus, born of the same father. 

a. With the name of the mother and with pronouns the pre- 
position ex is generally used, except in the poets ; with distant 
ancestors the preposition ab. Thus : — 

Ex regis filia natus, born of the king's daughter ; bestiae 
guoque ex se natos amant, even the brutes love their offspring ; 
Belgae orti sunt ab Germanis, the Belgians are descended 
from the Germans. 



228 SYNTAX. 

b. Loco, genere,familia, generally take no preposition ; as : — 
Summo loco natus, born in the highest station. 

For the construction'with places, see 425, 426. 

c. With constare and like words the ablative is used alone to 
denote material. Thus : — 

Animo constanrus et corpore, we consist of mind and body 
(cf. Cic, Fin., iv., 8, 19). 

Note. Otherwise a preposition is used, except sometimes in verse. 

Ablative of Agent (Ablativus agentis). 

406. The ablative of persons or personified things is 
used with the preposition a, ab, to denote the agent. 
Thus : — 

A Clodio diligor, I am loved by Clodius ; laudatur ab his 
culpatur ab illis, by the one set he is praised, by the other 
blamed (Hor.). 

So, perire ab hoste, to be slain by the enemy. 

For Dative of Agent, see 383. 

Ablative of Means {Ablativus instrumentl). 

407. The ablative of things is used without a preposi- 
tion to denote the means or instrument of an action. 
Thus : — 

Cornibus tauri, apri dentibus, morsu leones, aliae bestiae 
fuga se, aliae occultatione tutantur, bulls protect themselves 
by their horns, boars by their tusks, lions by biting, some beasts 
by running away, others by hiding ; Britanrii interiores lacte 
et carne vivebant pellibus^e erant vestiti, the Britons of 
the interior used to live on milk and meat, and had skins for 
clothing. 

a. A person regarded as a means is denoted by per with the 
accusative ; as : — 

Multi per Caesarem aut honores aut divitias ceperunt, 
many received office or wealth at Caesar's hands. 

b. Various verbs winch in English are used transitively are in 
Latin construed with an ablative of means. Thus especially 



ABLATIVE OF AGENT, OF MEANS, AND OF PRICE. 229 

words meaning "to play" (either games or music), and some- 
times verbs of teaching (see also 394, 2, b). Thus : — 

Ludere pila, to play tennis ; * carter e tibils, to play the flute ; 
artibus mstruere, to teach the arts ; litter is imbuere, to instil 
learning. 

c. The ablative of means may be used to denote the road or 
path taken (sometimes called ablative of the way by which). 
Thus : — 

Omnibus viis notis semitis^e essedarios ex silvis emlttebat, 
he was sending out warriors in chariots from the woods by all 
the known roads and paths (Caes., B. 67., v., 19). 

Ablative of Price (Ablatwtis pretii). 

408. The price f or value of a thing is expressed by 
the ablative, chiefly when it is a definite quantity. 
Thus : — 

Cum te trecentis talentis regi Cotto vendidisses, when you 
had sold yourself to king Cottus for three hundred talents 
(Cic.) ; constitit quadringentis milibus, it cost four hun- 
dred thousand [sesterces] (Varr.) ; lev! moments aestiruare, 
to esteem it of little consequence (Caes.). 

For the genitive of indefinite price, see 371, 372. 

a. Magno, permagno, parvo, minimo, plurimo, nihilo, though 
denoting indefinite value, are used as ablatives of price. 

b, Miitare and its compounds take either the accusative of the 
thing given with the ablative of the thing received in exchange, or 
vice versa, but the context always prevents ambiguity. Thus : — 

Chaoniam glandem pingui miitavit arista, changed the 
Chaonian acorn for rich grain (Verg.) ; cur valle permiitem 
Sabma divitias operosiores, why should I exchange my Sabine 
vale for more burdensome riches ? (Hor., Odes, iii., 1, 47). 
Sometimes cum is used with the ablative ; as : — 
Mortem cum vita commutdre, to exchange life for death 
(Sulp., ad Cic). 

* We can also say, of course, in English, " to play at tennis," "to play 
on the flute," etc. 

t That is, the means by which something is bought or sold. 



230 SYNTAX. 

Ablative of Plenty (Ablatwus copiae). 

409. The ablative (of means) is used with verbs 
and adjectives which denote fullness or abundance. 
Thus : — 

[ Villa] abundat porco, haed5, agno, gallina, lacte, ca- 
seo. melle, the farmhouse is plentifully provided with ham, veni- 
son, lamb, poultry, milk, cheese, and honey (Cic, Sen., 16, 56) ; 
domus plena servis, a house full of slaves (Iuv.). 

a. Sometimes, by a Greek idiom, such words take a genitive 
in the poets ; compleo, impleo, and plenus, also in prose ; as : — 

Ollam denariorum implere, to fill a jar with pennies (Cic). 
(Cf. 359 and 360.) 

Ablative of Manner (Ablatwus modi). 

410. (1.) The ablative is used with the preposition 
cum to denote manner or accompaniment. Thus : — 

Cum voluptate aliquem audire, to listen to one with 
pleasure ; Verves Lampsacum venit cum magna calamitate 
cwitatis, Verres came to Lampsacus with great disaster to the 
city (Cic). 

(2.) The preposition is often omitted when there is an 
adjective agreeing with the ablative, and with a few par- 
ticular words, — modo, ratione, more, ritu, silentio, iure, 
iniuria, etc. Thus : — 

Nudls pedibus ineedere, to go barefoot ; summa aequi- 
tate res cdnstituit, he arranged affairs with the greatest fair- 
ness ; latronum ritu vivere, to live after the fashion of brigands ; 
silentio praeterlre aliquid, to pass by something in silence. 

Ablative of Characteristic (Ablatwus qualitatis). 

411. The ablative is used, with an adjective agreeing 
with it or a genitive depending on it, to denote a charac- 
teristic or quality. Thus : — 

Agesilaus statura fait humili et corpore exiguS, Agesi- 



ABLATIVE CASE. 231 

laus was of short stature and small frame ; homo maxima 
barba, a man with very long beard ; flumen difncill transitu 
ripisque praeruptis, a river of difficult passage and steep 
banks ; clavus ferreus digit! pollicis crassitudine, an iron 
nail of the thickness of the thumb. 

a. Physical characteristics are always expressed thus by the 
ablative ; other qualities may also be expressed by a genitive of 
characteristic. (See 356, and 358, 6.) 

Ablative of Specification (Ablativus limitationis). 

412. The ablative is used with nouns, adjectives, and 
verbs to denote IN what respect a thing is true. 
Thus : — 

Pietate filius, consiliis parens, in affection a son, in 
counsel a parent. 

lure peritus, skilled in law ; pedibus aeger, lame in his feet. 

Contremiscd tota mente et omnibus artubus, I am agi- 
tated in my whole mind and all my limbs (Cic.) ; mea quidem 
sentential pad semper est consulendum, in my opinion at 
least the interests of peace are always to be looked out for. 

a. Here belongs the ablative in the expressions quid hoc 
nomine facias, what can you do with such a man ? quid illo 
fiet ? what will be done with him ? quid tefuturum est ? what 
is going to become of you ? etc. 

For the rare dative with facio in this sense, see 381, a. 

Note. The tendency to confuse the ablative of characteristic and the 
ablative of specification can be avoided by remembering that with the first 
the adjective agrees with the ablative, and with the second it agrees with 
the noun qualified. Thus : — 

Homo aegris pedibus (Characteristic). 
Homo dieter pedibus (Specification). 

Ablative of Separation {Ablativus separationis). 

413. Separation or privation is denoted, with vari- 
ous verbs, by the ablative. With persons a preposition 

* This case is sometimes regarded as belonging under 404, 3. 



232 SYNTAX. 

(«5, de, ecc) is always used ; with things the preposition is 
sometimes used, sometimes omitted. Thus : — 

Qulntum Varium pellere possessionibus conatus est, he 
tried to drive Quintus Varius from his possessions (Cic.) ; tune 
earn philosophiam sequere, quae spoliat rios iudicio, prlvat 
adprobatione, orbat sensibus ? do you follow a philosophy 
which robs us of the ability to pass judgment, deprives us of the 
power to approve, and takes away the use of the senses ? (Cic.) ; 
hoc me libera metu, free me from this fear (Ter.) ; tu, lup- 
piter, hunc a tuis arls arcebis, thou, Jupiter, wilt keep this 
[scoundrel] from thy altars (Cic.) ; arcem ab incendi5 llberd- 
vit, he freed the citadel from fire (Cic.) ; se ab Etruscis se- 
cernere, to separate one's self from the Etruscans (Liv.). 
For the dative with words of taking away from, see 380. 

Ablative of Want (Ablatlvus inopiae). 

414:. So words and adjectives denoting need, etc., take 
the ablative. Thus :. — 

Virum qui pecunia egeat, a man who needs money (Cic.) ; 
carere culpa, to be free from fault (Cic.) ; mea adulescentia 
indiget illdrum bona existimati5ne, my youthf ulness needs 
their good opinion (Cic.) ; inops verbis, poor in words (Cic.) ; 
orba fratribus, bereft of her brothers (Ovid). 

a. Eged and indlged often take the genitive ; as : — ■ 

Eged consili, I need advice ; rion tarn artis indigent quam 
laboris, they do not lack skill so much as they lack industry 
(Cic.) 

b. Other words of the kind are, by a Greek idiom, often used 
with the genitive in the poets ; as : — 

Abstineto irarum, thou shalt refrain from wrath (Hor.) ; 
cum famulis operum solutls, with the slaves released from 
their tasks (Hor., Odes, iii., 17). 

Ablative of Degree of Difference {Ablatlvus mensurae). 

415. Degree of difference is expressed by the ab- 
lative. Thus : — 



ABLATIVE CASE. 233 

Hibernia dimidio minor, quam Britannia, Ireland is smaller 
by half than Britain ; quam molestum est uno digit 5 plus 
habere, how irksome it would be to have one finger more [i. e.> 
than we have] (Cic.) ; multo ante lucis adventum, long before 
the coming of the day (Sail.) ; quo difficilius, hoc praeela- 
rius, the more difficult, the more glorious. 

a. An accusative of specification is sometimes used instead of 
the ablative of measure ; as : — 

Aliquantum est ad rem avidior, he is somewhat more eager 
for the thing (Ter.). 

Note. The ablatives of separation, of want, and of degree of difference, 
are varieties of the ablative of specification. 

Ablative with Comparatives. 

416. The comparative degree, when quam is omitted, 
is followed by the ablative. Thus : — 

Nihil est virtiite formosius, nothing is more beautiful than 
virtue (Cic.) ; quis C. Laelio comior, who more courteous 
than Gaius Laelius ? (Cic.) 

a. Quam has to be used if the second term of the comparison 
is not nominative (or vocative) or accusative ; as : — 

Adventus hostium fuit agris quam urbi terribilior, the 
arrival of the enemy was more dreadful for the country than 
for the city (Liv.). 

^Quam is also frequently used when the second term of the 
comparison is in one of the cases named. Thus : — 

Melior txitiorque est certa pax quam sperata victoria, 
certain peace is better and safer than victory hoped for (Liv.). 

b. The words opinione, spe, exspectatione, fide, dicto, solito, 
aequo, credibili, necessario, vero, iusto, are used after compar- 
atives to supply the place of a clause. Thus : — 

Opini5ne celerius ventUrus esse dlcitur, he is said to be 
likely to come sooner than one expects (Caes.) ; iniurias gravius 
aequo habere, to take injuries more to heart than is right and 
fair (Sail.). 



234 SYNTAX. 

c. Plus, minus, amplius, and longius, with or without quam, 
are used with words of number or measure without affecting 
their construction. Thus : — 

Non plus quam quattuor milia effugerunt, not more than 
four thousand escaped (Liv.) ; minus duo milia hominum ex 
lantd exercitu effugerunt, out of so large an army, less than 
two thousand men escaped (Liv.) ; mllites Romani saepe plus 
dlmidiati mensis cibaria ferebant, the Roman soldiers used 
often to carry with them provisions for more than half a month 
(Cic). 

d. Alius is in verse sometimes construed with the ablative 
like a comparative ; as : — 

Neve putes alium sapiente honoque beatum, nor think 
any one other than a wise and good man happy (Hor.). 

e. Inferior usually takes quam, but is occasionally followed 
by a dative ; as : — 

Vir nulla arte cuiquam inferior, a man inferior to none in 
any kind of craft (Sail.). 

Note. The foregoing - uses of the ablative will sometimes be found to 
shade mto each other so subtly that it is difficult or impossible to assign a 
given instance to a given class. This is due to the necessity of making a 
classification for foreigners of things which a native has only to feel. 

Ablative in Certain Special Expressions. 

Note. The ablative is used with the following sets of words " idiomati- 
cally, ' ' — that is, the reason for the ablative is not immediately evident, 
and English usage leads one to expect a different case. 

Opus and Usus. 

417. Opus and usus, meaning need,* take the abla- 
tive. Thus : — 

Auctoritate tua nobis opus est, we need your influence 
(Cic.) ; nunc animis opus, nunc pectore firmo, now there is 
need of courage and a steadfast heart (Verg.) ; naves, quibus 
consult tisus non esset, ships for which the consul had no occa- 
sion (Liv.) ; maturato opus est, there is need of haste (Liv.). 

* The ablative here is an ablative of specification, showing the respect in 
which the need is felt. 



ABLATIVE IN SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS. 235 

a. The person or thing who has the need is expressed by the 
dative, as in the above examples. The thing needed, besides 
being expressed by the ablative, is sometimes expressed by the 
nominative as subject (especially if a neuter pronoun), or rarely 
by the genitive ; as : — 

Quod rion opus est, asse carum est, what is not necessary is 
dear at a cent (Cic, de Sen.) ; argent! opus fait, there was 
need of silver (Liv.). 

An infinitive clause may also be used as subject ; as : — 

Quid opus est tarn valde adfirmare, what need of such 
strong assertion ? 

Dignus, Indignus, Contentus, Fretus. 

418. Dignus, indignus, contentus, and fretus * take 
the ablative. Thus : — 

Dignus laude, worthy of praise ; vox populi maiestate in- 
digna, a speech unworthy the dignity of the people (Caes.) ; 
bestiae eo contentae rion quaerunt amplius, the brutes, con- 
tent with that, seek nothing further (Cic.) ; plerique ingenio 
fretl, most of them trusting to their ingenuity (Cic). 

a. Dignus and indignus sometimes take a genitive, and fre- 
tus in Livy takes a dative ; as : — 

Suscipe cogitationem dignissimam tuae virtutis, adopt 
a plan which is most worthy your own merits ; fortunae fretus, 
trusting to fortune. 

For dignus, indignus, with the subjunctive, see 482, 2. 

Utor, Fruor, Fungor, Potior, Vescor. 

419. Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor,^ and some 
of their compounds, take the ablative. Thus : — 

Multl deorum beneficio perverse utuntur, many people 
use the blessings of the gods wrongly (Cic, N. D., iii., 28, 70) ; 
frui voluptate, to enjoy pleasure (Cic.) ; fungitur officio, he 

* The ablative with dignus and indignus is also an ablative of specifi- 
cation ; with contentus and fretus rather an ablative of cause. 

f The ablative here is really an ablative of means. Thus, frui volup- 
tate = to get enjoyment by means of pleasure. 



236 SYNTAX. 

performs the duty (Cic.) ; oppido potltl sunt, they got posses- 
sion of the town (Liv.) ; vescltur aura, feeds on air (Verg.) ; 
legibus abutl, to misuse the laws (Cic.) ; defunct! imperio 
regis, having fulfilled the king's command (Liv., L, 4, 5). 

a. In early Latin these verbs occur with the accusative. 
Thus : — 

Uteris, ut voles, operam meam, you will use my services as 
you please (PL, Poen., v., 2, 128) ; munus fungatur suum, let 
him perform his duty (PL, Trin., 354). 

Note. In classical Latin these verbs are used in the gerundive, not the 
gerund, construction (see 550). Therefore, ad urbem potiundam, not 
ad urbe potiundum, for getting possession of the city; voluptatis 
fruendae causa, not voluptate fruendi causa, for the sake of enjoying 
pleasure. 

b. Potior also occurs with the genitive ; as : — 

Si exploratum tibi sit posse te illius regni potiri. if you 
are satisfied that you can get possession of that kingdom (Cic, 
Fam., L, 7. 5). 

NItor, Innltor, Fido, Confido. 

420. tttor, innltor, fido, and confido* take the ab- 
lative. Thus : — 

Baculo riifi, to lean on a staff ; nitl auctoritate, to depend 
on (some one's) influence ; liasta inriixus. leaning on his spear ; 
fidere cursu, to trust to running ; natura loci cdnfidebant, 
they had confidence in their natural position. 

a. Fido and confldo also sometimes take a dative (see 
376), as diffido always does. 

Adsuesco, Adsuefacio. Consuesco. Insnesco. 

421. Adsuesco, adsuefacio, consuesco, msuesco* some- 
times take the ablative. f Thus : — 

Aves sanguine et praeda adsuetae, birds accustomed to the 
blood of prey (Hor.) ; nullo officio aut disciplina adsnefao- 
tus, accustomed to no [restraint of] duty or training (Caes.) ; 

* The ablative with the two sets of verbs treated in 420 and 421 is 
an ablative of means. Thus, baculo rati = to support one's self by means 
of a staff. 

r In Livy and the later writers these verbs are also used with a dative. 



ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 237 

rie gravissimd dolSre timore consuescerem, in order not to 
become accustomed to most bitter pain through fear (Plm.). 

a. Acquiesco, repose in, rejoice in, takes most commonly in 
with an ablative, but (especially in the historians and later 
writers) also a simple ablative or dative ; as — 

Qui iam aetate provecti, in nostris libris acquiescunt, 
those who are now advanced in years find rest in my books 
(Cic.) ; qui maxims P. Clodl morte acquierunt, who took 
the greatest satisfaction in the death of Publius Clodius (Cic.) ; 
cui velut oraculo acquiescebat, to whom he yielded assent 
as to an oracle (Suet., ViteL, 14). 

Ablative Absolute (Ablatlvus absolutus). 

422. A noun and a participle are put in the ablative, 
not grammatically dependent upon the rest of the sen- 
tence, to denote the time, reason, or circumstances of 
an action. Thus : — 

Pythagoras Tarquinio regnante in Italiam venit, Pytha- 
goras came to Italy in the reign of Tarquin (Cic.) ; hac ora- 
tione habita, concilium dlmlsit, when this speech had been de- 
livered, he dismissed the assembly (Caes., B. G., i., 33) ; virttite 
excepta, nihil amlcitid p?*aestabilius putetis, regard nothing, 
with the exception of virtue, as of more value than friendship 
(Cic). 

a. Two nouns or a noun with an adjective may also be put in 
the ablative absolute, with the participial notion of " being " * 
implied. Thus : — 

Romam venit Mari5 consule, he came to Rome while 
Marius was consul (Cic.) ; quid adulescente duce efficere 
possent, what they could do with a youth as leader (Caes.) ; 
Hannibale vivo, while Hannibal was living (Nep.). 

b. A clause sometimes supplies the place of the noun ; as : — 
Nondum comperto quam in regiSnem venisset rex, 

not yet having found out into what region the king had come 
(Liv.)- 

* It will be remembered that esse has no present participle. 



238 SYNTAX. 

c. A pronoun •which would be in the ablative absolute is some- 
times omitted.* Thus : — 

Additur dolus, missis qui magnam vim Ilgnorum ardentem 
in flumen conieereni, a crafty scheme was also employed of 
sending people to throw a lot of burning wood into the stream 
(Lit.. i. ; 37) ; causam dlgressus requirentibus. when they 
sought the cause of the departure (Tac. Hist.. i., 27). 

d. The ablative absolute is chiefly used with the present par- 
ticiple or the perfect passive participle, and when the word in 
the ablative does not otherwise occur in the sentence, but it also 
occasionally occurs in the following cases : — 

(1.) Future participle : — 

Inrupturis tarn Infestis nationibus. when such hostile 
nations were on the jnoint of bursting in (Llv.). 

(2). Perfect participle of a deponent verb (rare with an ob- 
ject, but not uncommon otherwise) : — 

Sulla omnia pollicito. Sulla having promised everything 
(Sail.. lug., 103. 7) ; secutis omnibus, all following (Hot., 
S.. ii., 8. 40) ; virtutibus ad crucidtum profectis. the vir- 
tues going to the rack (Cic, Ttise., v., 28, 80). 

(3.) The ablative denoting the same person as the subject or 
object of the sentence : — 

Ostendit se milu rnndelem nunquam. se viva. fore, she 
shows me that she will never be unfaithful to me. as long as she 
lives (Plant.. True. ii.. 4. 85) : Caesar, obsidibus impera- 
tis. hos Haeduls cPstodiendos tradit. Caesar, having ordered 
hostages, gives them over to the Haeduans to guard (Caes.. B. 
G.. vi.. 4) ; nemo erit qui credat te invito provinciam tibi 
esse decretam. there will be no one who will believe that the 
province was assigned you against your own will (Cic, Phil., 
xi., 10, 23). 

* Expressions like tr an quill 5. with a calm sea. sereno. under a clear sky, 
etc. may be considered as ablatives absolute -with the noun omitted ; or, 
perhaps better, as ablatives of time, like ludis, comitiis. at the games, elec- 
tions, etc. (See 42-t, b.) 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF PLACE AND TIME. 239 

(4.) With a predicate word added : — 

Dolabella hesterno die hoste decret5, Dolabella having 
been yesterday decreed an enemy (Cic, Phil., xi., 7, 16). 

For the Constructions of Place and Time, see 423 ff. 
For the Cases with Prepositions, see 428 ff. 

Constructions of Place and Time. 
Duration of Time and Extent of Space. 

423. Duration of time and extent of space are 
expressed by the accusative. Thus : — 

Appius caecus mult5s ann5s fuit, Appius was blind for 
many years (Cic.) ; dies totos de virtute disserunt, they dis- 
cuss (about) virtue whole days together (Cic.) ; cum abessem 
ab Amano iter unlus diet, when I was one day's journey from 
Mount Amanus (Cic). 

(a.) Measure may also be expressed by a genitive of char- 
acteristic (cf. 356). Thus: — 

Duds fossas quindecim pedes latas perduxit, he drew out 
two ditches fifteen feet wide (Caes.) ; but also, valid pedum 
duodecim, with a rampart of twelve feet in height (Caes., B. 
G.,ii.,5). 

b. Distance may also be expressed by an ablative of measure 
(cf. 415). Thus: — 

Tria passuum milia ab ipsa urbe castra posuit, he pitched 
his camp three miles from the city itself (Liv.) ; but also, mili- 
bus passuum sex a Caesaris castris consedit, he encamped 
six miles from Caesar's camp (Caes.). 

Time at which. 

424. Time at which or within which is expressed 
by the ablative. Thus : — 

Hoc tempore, at this time ; tertia vigilia eruptionem fe- 
cerunt, they made a sally in the third watch (Caes.) ; ut hieme 
naviges, for you to sail in winter (Cic.) 



240 SYNTAX. 

a. The ablative occasionally also denotes duration of time ; 
as: — 

Mllites quinque h5ris proelium sustinuerunt, the soldiers 
maintained the battle for five hours (Caes., B. O., i., 47). 

b. Many words are used as ablatives of time where the Eng- 
lish idiom leads us to expect a different construction. Thus : — 

Ludis, at the games ; comitiis, at the elections ; initio or 
principle in the beginning ; adventu, on the arrival ; dis- 
cessu, on the departure ; tumultu., bello, pace, etc., (in time 
of) insurrection, war, peace, etc. 

c. The day of the month is commonly expressed by the for- 
mula ante diem . . . Kalendas, Nonas, or Idus, with the name 
of the month as an adjective agreeing with Kalendas, Nonas, 
or Idus. Thus : — 

Is dies erat ante diem qulntum Kalendas Aprllis, L. 
P'isdne A. Gablnio consulibus, that day was the fifth before 
the first of April (i. e., Mar. 28th*), in the consulship of Lucius 
Piso and Aulus Gabinius (Caes., B. G., i., 6). 

d. The year is regularly denoted by the names of the consuls 
in the ablative absolute, and generally without a connective, as 
in the preceding example. 

e. Instead of ante diem, etc., sometimes a simple ablative of 
time is used, the name of the month remaining in the accusa- 
tive ; as : — 

Quinto decimo die Kalendas SextiUs {XV Kal. Sext.), 
the fifteenth day before the first of August (i. e., July 18th*). 

f. The whole expression ante diem . . . Kal., etc., may be 
treated as a noun and governed by a preposition. Thus : — 

Caedem opti.natium contiderat in ante diem qulntum 
Kalendas Novembrls, he had assigned the massacre of the 
nobles to the 28th of October (cf. Cic, Cat., i., 3, 7). 
For further treatment of the Roman calendar, see 661. 

* It must he rememhered that the Romans, in reckoning from one day to 
another, included hoth days, while we exclude one of them. Thus the 28th 
of March was to the Romans the fifth day hefore the 1st of April, while to 
us it is the fourth day. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF PLACE AND TIME. 241 

Place to, at, in, from which. 

425. Eelations of place (except with names of towns) 
are expressed by prepositions, with the accusative for 
place to which, and the ablative for place at, in, or 
from, which. Thus : — 

Te in Epirum venisse gaicdeo, I am glad you have reached 
Epirus (Cic.) ; hide ad montem altum pervenerunt, from 
there they came to a high mountain ; cruentum bellum in Afri- 
ca gerebatur, a bloody war was going on in Africa ; in f ord 
ilium invenies, you will find him at the market-place ; ex Asia, 
translbis in Europam, from Asia you will go across to Eu- 
rope ; ab flumine statim discedere iussit, he ordered them to 
go away from the river at once. 

426. With names of towns (and small islands) — 
(1.) No preposition is used ; as : — 

Pegulus Karthaginem rediit, Regulus went back to Car- 
thage (Cic.) ; Pausaniam cum classe Cyprum miserunt, they 
sent Pansanias to Cyprus with a fleet (Nep.) ; natus Tibure 
vel Gabiis, born at Tibur or Gabii (Hor.) ; Brundisi5 pro- 
fecti sumits, we started from Brundisium (Cic.) ; Demaratus 
Tarquinios Corintho fugit, Demaratus fled from Corinth to 
Tarquinii. 

(2.) The place in or at which has the locative form 
where that is different from the ablative.* Thus : — 

Romae aliquot menses morabamur, we tarried some months 
at Rome ; Dionysius tyr annus Syracusis expulsus Corinth! 
pueros docebat, Dionysius the tyrant, when driven from Syra- 
cuse, kept a boys' school at Corinth (Cic.) ; Karthagini 
mortuus est, he died at Carthage. 

But : — 

Athenis Plato vivebat, Plato lived at Athens ; Sardibus 
haec facta sunt, this took place at Sardis ; etc. 

* That is, in the singular of the first and second declensions, and some- 
times of the third. (See 88, a, 93, 97, 3, 112.) 



242 SYNTAX. 

a. Like names of towns are used domus, home, and rus, 
country, with the locatives belli, militiae, in the field or at war, 
humi, on the ground, and the expressions forts, out of doors, 
terra marique, on land and sea. A locative domul, as well as 
doml, occurs. 

b. A remnant of the locative case is seen in the use of animi 
with verbs and adjectives of emotion ; as, excruciarl animi, 
to be tortured in soul ; aeger animi, sick at heart ; etc. 

e. The ablatives loco and parte, and sometimes others of gen- 
eral meaning, are used without a preposition to denote the 
place where. So also the preposition is sometimes omitted, 
when the ablative is qualified by an adjective (especially totus). 
Thus : — 

Hoc loco, in this place ; ea parte, on that side ; urbe tota 
gemitus fit, a groan arises in the whole town (Cic.) ; tota Asia 
vagatur, he wanders in all Asia (Cic.) ; media urbe, in the 
midst of the city (Liv., i., 33). 

d. With libro, capite, versu, etc., meaning the book, chapter, 
verse, etc., as a whole, no preposition is used ; but if a particu- 
lar place in them is meant, the preposition is necessary. 

e. The preposition is sometimes omitted with names of coun- 
tries (especially when connected with names of towns), but 
mostly in the ante-classical and post-classical writers. Cicero 
and Caesar use only Aegyptum thus. The poets omit the 
preposition often even with common nouns. Thus : — 

Romae Numidiae^e facinora eius memorat, he mentions 
his doings at Rome and in Numidia (Sail., lug., 33, 4) ; lltte- 
rae Macedonia adldtae, a letter brought from Macedonia 
(Liv.) ; Italiam fato profugus Lavinia-^e venit litora, 
driven by fate into exile he came to Italy and the shores of 
Lavinium (Verg., Ae., i., 2) ; flnibus onines prosiluere suis, 
they all leaped forth from their confines (Verg.). 

f. The accusative is used in Latin whenever motion to is 
implied, even where the English idiom leads us to expect the 
ablative. Thus : — 

Coniurdtl in curiam convemrunt, the conspirators met in 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF PLACE AND TIME. 243 

the senate house ; legates Karthaginem in African! mlserunt, 
they sent ambassadors to Carthage in Africa. 

g. When the word for " town " is put in apposition with 
the name of the town, and has no adjective with it, the proper 
name generally stands after the common noun, and takes its 
case. Thus : — 

Vercingetorix expellitur ex oppido Gergovia, Vercinge- 
torix is being driven out of the town of Gergovia ; Cimon in 
oppido Citio est mortuus, Cimon died in the town of Citium. 

h. When the word for " town " has an attributive with it, 
the proper name stands first, and if in the locative retains its 
own case. A preposition meaning " at " or "in" is here often 
omitted with the word for " town ; " occasionally also one mean- 
ing " from." Thus : — 

Tftsculd, ex clarlssimo municipio, from Tusculum, a famous 
town ; Iugurtha Thalam pervenit, in oppidum magnum 
et opulentum, Jugurtha arrives at Thala, a large and wealthy 
town ; Cicero Arpini parvo (in) oppido Lafl natus est, Ci- 
cero was born at Arpinum, a small town of Latium. 

427. Prepositions are sometimes used with expressions 
of time for greater accuracy, and with names of towns to 
denote to, in, or from, the neighborhood of the place. 
Thus : — 

Qnem per decern annos aluimus, whom we have been 
rearing for ten years (Cic.) ; de tertia vigilia ad hostes con- 
tendit, he hastened against the enemy during the third watch 
(Caes.) ; in diebus proximis decern, within the next ten days 
(Sail.) ; iter dirigere ad Mutinam, to turn one's journey 
towards Modena (Cic.) ; ab Alexandria profectus, starting 
from Alexandria (Cic.) ; ex domo, from home. 

Cases with Prepositions. 

428. The cases used with prepositions are the accusa- 
tive and the ablative. 



2U 



SYNTAX. 



429. The accusative is used with the following 
twenty-six prepositions : — 

ad, to, towards. erga, towards. pone, behind. 

adversus (adver- extra, outside of. post, after. 

sum), against. infra, below. praeter, along by. 

ante, before. inter, among. prope, near. 

apud, near. intra, within. propter, near, on 

circum (circa), iuxta, next. account of. 

around. . ob, against, on ac- secundum, after. 

circiter, about. count of. supra, above. 

cis (citra), this side of penes, in the power of. trans, across. 

contra, beyond. per, through. ultra, beyond. 

Thus : — 

Ad templum non aeqiiae Palladis Ibant, they went to the 
temple of the unpropitious Minerva (Verg.) ; adversus hostes, 
against the foe (Liv.) ; Germani qui cis Rhenum incoluni, 
the Germans who live this side of the Rhine (Caes.) ; cum tan- 
tum resideat intra muros mall, when so much evil remains 
within the city (Cic.) ; principio rerum im/perium penes reges 
erat, in the beginning the power (over things) was in the hands 
of kings (Just.) ; templum ponam propter aquam, I will 
build a temple near the water (Verg.) ; inter agendum, in the 
midst of doing ; ante donandum, before giving (Verg.). 

a. Cis is generally used with names of places, citra with 
other words also ; as : — 

Cis Taurum, this side Mt. Taurus ; citra Veliam, this side 
Velia ; citra satietatem, short of satiety. 

b. Erga is very rarely used in classical Latin except with 
names of persons. 

430. The ablative is used with the following ten 
prepositions : — 

cum, with. pro, before. 

de,from, about. sine, without. 

e or ex, out of. tenus, as far as. 
prae, before. 

Not before Cicero. 



a or ab, from, by. 
absque, without. 
coram,* in presence 
of- 



CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 245 

Thus : — 

Ab Mo tempore, from that time ; cum exercitu, with an 
army ; certls de caus'is, for particular reasons ;*ex fitga, from 
flight ; sine labor e, without trouble. 

431. In, sub, subter, super, take the accusative when 
motion is implied (even figuratively) ; the ablative for 
relations of rest : — 

Via ducit in urbem, the way leads into town (Verg.) ; 
exercitus sub iugum missus est, the army was sent under the 
yoke (Caes.) ; consid subter murum hostium ad cohortes 
advehitur, the consul rides up to the cohorts close under the 
walls of the enemy (Liv., xxxiv., 20, 8); super labentem cul- 
-mina tecti, gliding over the gable of the roof (Verg.). 

Media in urbe, in the midst of the city (Ovid.) ; bella sub 
Iliacis moenibus gerere, to wage war at the foot of the 
walls of Troy (Ovid.) ; super tenero prosternit gramine 
corpus, he stretches his body on the tender sward (Verg.). 

Noster in te amor, my love towards you ; hostilem in 
modum, after a hostile fashion ; sub ea condicione, on this 
condition ; sub adventu Romandrum, just before the arrival 
of the Romans ; multa super Priamo rogitans super Heo- 
tore multa, asking many questions about Priam and of Hector 
many (Verg.). 

a. Subter with the ablative is rare and chiefly poetical. 

b. Super in the meaning " about," as in the last example, 
takes the ablative. Otherwise it almost always takes the accu- 
sative. 

c. Verbs of placing (except sometimes impono) take the 
ablative, not accusative, with in, notwithstanding the implied 
motion ; as : — 

Tres legiones in ilia, urbe posuit, he stationed three legions 
in that city. 

d. Tenus regularly follows its noun. Various other preposi- 
tions occasionally do so, but chiefly in the poets. Prepositions 
of one syllable are the least common in this position. Thus : — 

Capido tenus, as far as the hilt (Verg., Ae., x., 536) ; vesti- 



246 SYNTAX. 

bulum ante, before the entrance court (Verg., Ae., vi., 273) ; 
te propter, on your account (Verg., Ae., iv., 320). 

e. Cum is always appended to the personal pronouns, and 
generally to the relative and interrogative forms, quo, qua, qui- 
bus, qui. Thus : — 

Est mihi tecum aniicitia vetus, I have a long-standing 
friendship with you ; vobiscum simul, along with you ; f rater 
quocum Antiochum vicerat, the brother with whom he had 
conquered Antiochus. 

f. Tenus occasionally takes the genitive, thus retaining its 
original force as a noun ; as : — 

Corcyrae tenus, as far as Corcyra. 

g. Certain adverbs sometimes take the accusative or ablative 
like prepositions. So, with the accusative, pridie, postridie,* 
propius, proxime (cf. 390, 4), usque ; with the ablative, pa- 
lam, procul, simul ; with either case (or occasionally with a 
genitive or dative), cla.m. Thus: proxumt Karthaginem, close 
to Carthage (Sail., Jug., 18, ll) ; palam populd, before the peo- 
ple (Lav., vi., 14, 5) ; clam uxorem, unknown to his wife (Plaut., 
Merc., 545) ; clam patris, unknown to his father (Plaut., Merc, 
43). 

Note. All the prepositions denoted originally relations of place, 
taking- the accusative where motion TO or towards a place was implied, 
otherwise the ablative. This distinction is also easily traceable in most 
of the figurative uses of the prepositions as they grew out of the relations 
of place. 

Peculiarities in the Use of Nouns. 

The following* points in the use of Latin nouns deserve 
especial notice : — 

432. Concrete nouns are used to denote the time of 
life at which a person does something, where in English 
an abstract noun or a clause is used. Thus : — 

Adulescens Caid in Hispania mllitaverat, Cato had served 
in Spain when a young man (or in his youth). 

So, a puero, etc., from boyhood, etc. 

* These two words also take a genitive (see 355, 5, 6). 



PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF NOUNS. 247 

433. So also in designations of office. Thus : — 

Cat Ulnae coniurationem Cicero consul oppressit, Cicero, 
when consul, overthrew the conspiracy of Catiline. 
a. In consulatu sua can, however, also be used. 

434. Abstract nouns are often used in a collective 
sense ; as, legdtio, an embassy ; nobilitds, the aristocracy ; 
inventus, the youth ; levis armatura, the light armed 
troops. 

435. The singular of nouns denoting persons is also 
used collectively instead of the plural, especially in military 
expressions ; as, miles, the soldiery ; hostis, the enemy ; 
Poenus, the Carthaginian (s). (Cf. also 346, 1, a.) 

436. The singular is thus used for the plural in names 
of animals (to denote food), and of plants, and sometimes 
other words. Thus : — 

Villa abundat porco, haedo, etc., the farmhouse has plenty 
of pork, goat's meat, etc.* ; caput redirriire rosa, to bind the 
head with roses ; faba vesci, to feed on beans ; bestiae pluma 
obductae, animals covered with feathers. 

437. The plural is used where in English the singular 
is preferred : — 

(1.) To indicate a thing as belonging to SEVERAL PER- 
SONS Or to PEOPLE IN GENERAL. TllUS I 

Hostes terga vertunt, the enemy turn their back; animi 
hominum immortelles sunt, the soul of man is immortal. 

(2.) In names of materials, etc., to denote kinds or 
pieces of the thing mentioned ; as, vma, kinds of wine ; 
carnes, pieces of flesh ; Ugna, bits of wood. 

(3.) In abstract nouns, to denote instances of the 
quality. Thus : — 

Clarae mortes pro patrid oppetitae bedtae videri solent, 
an illustrious death met for one's country is regarded as a hap- 
piness ; in odia hominum incurrere, to run into men's dislike. 
* The same example will be found more fully quoted on p. 230. 



248 SYNTAX. 

a. The plural is not infrequently used for the singular in 
poetry, as having a more elevated and impressive effect. 

Note. Except in the uses mentioned, abstract nouns are much less com- 
mon in Latin than in English, verb constructions, or nouns of general 
meaning, like res, with an adjective, being used instead. The pupil should 
be particularly warned against using tbe longer abstracts in -tas, -tia, 
-tio, etc., freely as equivalents of the English words derived from them. 

Peculiarities in the Use of Adjectives. 

The following points in the use of adjectives deserve especial 
notice : — 

438. Adjectives are often used as nouns : — 

(1.) Especially, adjectives denoting relationship, or 
CONNECTION with, are often more common as nouns than 
as real adjectives ; as : — 

Cognatus (-a), a relative ; adflnis, a connection ; amicus 
(-<x), a friend; aequalis, a contemporary; viclnus (-a), a neigh- 
bor. 

a. So the gentile adjectives ; as : — 

Romanus, a Roman ; Atheniensis, an Athenian. 

(2.) In the masculine plural, as in English, to denote 
classes of people ; as : — 

Borii, the good ; dlvites, the rich ; doctl, the learned. 

a. In the singular, to denote a class, the nominative is rare ; 
but the other cases are not uncommon, especially the genitive 
with esse ; as : — 

Dementis hoc est, this is the part of a madman. 

(3.) In the neuter, to denote things ; as : — 

Bonum, a good thing ; malum, an evil. 

And especially perfect participles ; as : — 

Factum, a deed ; responsum, an answer. 

a. The participle thus made a noun may still be modified by 
an adverb ; as, praeclare factum as well as praeclarum factum. 
In such cases, bene, male, and rede are always used rather 
than the corresponding adjectives. 



PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF ADJECTIVES. 249 

439. Neuter adjectives are also used substantively : — 
(1.) In the singular, in philosophical language, to ex- 
press abstract ideas ; as : — 

Rectum, the right ; turpe, the base ; summum bonum, the 
highest good. 

(2.) As partitive genitives ; as : — 

Aliquid nov'i, something new. 

(3.) In phrases with prepositions ; as : — 

In medi5 relinqueve, to leave undecided ; in medium pro- 
ferre, to bring before people ; in tut5 esse, to be in safety ; 
sine dubio, without doubt. 

(4.) In the plural where in English often an abstract 
singular is used ; as : — 

liista d'were, to say what is just ; pestifera a salutaribus 
dlscernere, to distinguish the baneful from the salutary. 

a. Only the nominative and accusative are common in this 
use. Confusion with the similar masculine forms would often 
arise in the other cases, and then res is used with the adjective 
(bonarum rerum = bonorum, n., etc.). But where there is no 
danger of ambiguity such neuters occur ; as : — 

JPrlmum omnium, first of all things. 

440. Adjectives are often used in Latin where English 
prefers a possessive case or a noun with a preposition, 
especially adjectives formed from names of nations or in- 
dividuals. Thus : — 

Milites Pompeiani, the soldiers of Pompey ; orat'io Cice- 
roniana, an oration of Cicero's ; bellum Iugurthmum, the 
war against Jugurtha ; pugna Cannensis, the battle of Can- 
nae ; Dion Syracusanus, Dion of Syracuse. 

441. Attributive adjectives are very rarely used in 
direct agreement with proper names or with words like 
consul, which characterize an individual. The adjective 
is commonly made to agree with an appellative noun put 
in apposition with the proper name. Thus : " the wise 



250 SYNTAX. 

Scipio" is Scipio, vir sapientissimus ; " wealthy Capua " 
is Capua, urbs opulentissima. 

a. Adjectives of quantity or number, however, are common as 
attributives. Thus : tota JUspania, entire Spain : Romanl 
duo, two Romans. So also in expressions like Pompeius 
magnus, Pompey the Great ; Karthago nova, new Carthage ; 
Scipio maior, Scipio the elder. 

442. The superlatives summits, imus, ultimus, extre- 
mus, primus, with the word medius, are used, directly 
agreeing with a noun, to denote the top or bottom, high- 
est, first, middle part of, etc. Thus : — 

Summus mons, the top of the mountain ; in extrema ora- 
tidne, at the end of his speech ; media ab urbe, from the mid- 
dle of the city ; prima aestate, at the beginning of summer. 

So, novissimo agmine, on the rear of the line of march. 

For special uses of Comparatives and Superlatives, see 164. 

Peculiarities in the Use of Pronouns. 
Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 

443. In the first person the plural of the personal 
and possessive pronouns is often used, out of politeness, 
for the singular {pluralis modestiae). Thus : — 

Hunc librum ad te de senectute misimus, this book I have 
written on old age and dedicated to you (Cic, Sen., i., 3) ; 
Catonis sermo explicabit nostram omnem de senectute senten- 
tiam, Cato's words will explain all my opinion about old age 
(Cic, ibidem). 

a. The plural of the second person is never used as in Eng- 
lish for the singular. When it seems to be so used, it will always 
be found that more persons than the individual addressed are 
referred to ; as, for instance, his family or comrades. 

444. The possessive pronouns, like the personals (cf. 
316, a), are expressed only when emphatic (as marking 
a contrast) or to avoid ambiguity. In the first case they 
precede, in the second they follow, their noun. Thus : — 



PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 251 

Delude ego ilium de suo regno, ille me de nostra re pu- 
blica percontatus est, then I questioned him about his kingdom 
and he me about our state (Cic, Re Pub., vi., 9) ; vestra 
vero quae dlcitur vita mors est, but your so called life is 
really death (Cic, Re Pub., vi., 14). 

Quocirca si sapientiam meam admirari soletis — quae 
utinam digna esset oplnione vestra nostro^e cogno- 
mine ! — in hoc sumus sapientes, quod, etc., therefore if you 
are wont to look with admiration upon my wisdom — oh that it 
were worthy of your good opinion and my surname (i. e., Sapi- 
ens) ! — it is in this that I am wise, that, etc. (Cic, Sen., 2, 5). 

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns. 

445. (1.) The reflexive pronouns, se and suus, are 
used primarily to refer to the subject of the sentence or 
clause in which they stand. Thus : — 

Oppidan! f acinus in se cic suos foedum et ferum conscis- 
cunt, the townspeople resolve upon a barbarous and revolting 
deed against themselves and theirs (Llv., xxviii., 22, 5). 

Ipse se quisque diligit, non ut aliquam a se ipse me?xedem 
exigat caritatis suae, sed quod per se sibi quisque cams est, 
every one loves himself, not in the expectation of getting from 
himself any reward whatever for his fondness, but because 
every one is fond of himself for his own sake (Cic, Am., 21, 
80). 

Ariovistus respondit non oportere sese a popido Romano 
in suo iilre impediri, Ariovistus answered that he ought not to 
be interfered with by the Roman people in the exercise of his 
own rights (Caes., B. G., \., 36). 

Caesar, milites cohortatus ut suae pristinae virtutis memo- 
riam retinerent, Caesar, having exhorted the soldiers to hold fast 
to the remembrance of their own old time valor (Caes., B. G., 
ii., 21). 

a. Thus in the Indirect Discourse se regularly refers to the 
speaker, while the person addressed is referred to by ilium or 
eum. 



252 SYNTAX. 

(2.) In dependent clauses which are so thoroughly 
subordinated that the subject of the main clause is left 
more prominently in the mind than the subject of the 
subordinate clause, se and suus refer to the subject of 
the main clause, unless ambiguity might be caused there- 
by. Thus : — 

Orator sagaciter pervestlget quid sm dives cogitent, oplnen- 
tur, exspectent, our orator will cleverly search out the thoughts, 
opinions, and expectations of his own countrymen (cf. Cic, de 
Or., i., 51, 223). 

Africanus, si sua res ageretur, testimonium non dlceret, 
Africanus would not be giving evidence, if it were his case that 
was before the court (Cic, Rose. Am., 36, 103). 

Camillus mihi scrlpsit te secum locidum esse, Camillus 
wrote me that you had talked with him (Cic, Att., xi., 23, l). 

a. This reference of se or suus chiefly occurs where from the 
nature of the situation a reflexive referring to the subject of 
the subordinate clause would be unnatural or impossible, as in 
the examples, and where if the dependent sentence were inde- 
pendent it would not contain a reflexive. Thus the first and 
third examples above would become : — 

Quid cSgitant {etc.) elves eius (i. e., oratoris) ; tu cum 
eo (i. e., Camillo) locutus es. 

b. If any ambiguity might arise, ipse is used in the subordi- 
nate clause to refer to the subject of the main clause. Thus : — 

Iugurtha legatos mlsit qui ipsi liberlsque vltam peterent, 
Jugurtba sent ambassadors to beg for his life and his children's 
(cf. Sail., lug., 46, 2). 

446. Se and suus may further be used, when it can 
be done without ambiguity, to refer to words other than 
the subject, especially : — 

(1.) To the person thought of as acting, though not 
grammatically the subject. Thus : — 

A Caesare invltor ut sim sibi legatus, I am invited by 
Caesar to be his lieutenant ; vos ex M. Favoni5 audlstis 



KEFLEXIVE AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS. 253 

Clodium sibi dlxisse periturum Milonem, you have heard 
Marcus Favonius say that Clodius had told him that Milo 
should die (Cic, Mil., 16, 44) ; contention suis rebus esse 
sunt mdximae divitiae, to be content with one's lot is great 
riches. 

(2.) In various cases where the English puts in " own " 
or " very." Thus : — 

Romuius multitudo sua auxit animum, their very numbers 
increased the courage of the Romans ; valetudinem ipsam per 
se expetimus, we aim at good health for its own sake. 

a. Thus sometimes two or more instances of se occur in the 
same sentence referring to different persons. Thus : — 

Scythae petebant tit regis sulfiliam matrimonii) sibiiimge- 
ret, the Scythians asked him [i. e., Alexander] to unite the 
daughter of their king to himself in marriage (Curt.) ; quod 
sibi Caesar denuntiaret se Haeduorwm iniurias rion neglec- 
turum, neminem secum sine sua pernicie contendisse, as to 
Caesar's announcement to him [Ariovistus] that he [Caesar] 
would not disregard the wrongs done to the Haeduans, nobody 
had fought with him [Ariovistus] without coming to grief him- 
self [i. e., nemo\ (Caes., B. G., i. 36). 

447. The place of the third personal pronoun when not 
reflexive is supplied by is, ea, id, or, if a stronger form is 
wanted, by ille or Mc. Thus : — 

Quod fere cottidianis proeliis cum Germariis contendunt cum 
aut suis flnibus eos prohibent, aut ipsl in eorum finibus 
helium gerunt, because they struggle in almost daily battles 
with the Germans, when either they try to keep them out of 
their country or themselves make war in the Germans' country 
(Caes., B. G., i., 1) ; Ariovistus respondit, si quid ipsl a 
Caesare opus esset, sese ad eum venturum fuisse ; si quid ille 
se velit, ilium ad se venire oportere, Ariovistus answered that 
if he had wanted any thing of Caesar he should have gone to 
him ; if Caesar wanted any thing of him he ought to come to 
him (Caes., B. G., I, 34). 

a. Sometimes the demonstrative is used where the reflexive 



254 SYNTAX. 

would seem more natural. Here the writer changes for the 
moment from the point of view of the subject to his own point 
of view. Thus : — 

Helvetii persuadent Rauracls ut una cum ils proficiscantur, 
the Helvetians persuaded the Rauraci to go forth with them 
(Caes.) ; ita se gessit [Ligarius~\ ut el pacem esse expedlret, 
Ligarius so conducted himself that it was for his advantage to 
have peace (Cic.) ; [Delphos~] postquam ventum est, cupldo 
incessit animos iuvenum sciscitandi ad quern eorum regnum 
Romanum esset venturum, after they had come to Delphi a 
desire entered the minds of the young men to find out to which 
of them the Roman kingdom was to come (Liv., i., 56, 10). 

448. The intensive ipse is used : — 

(1.) To express the emphasis which is given in English 
by "himself," "herself," " itself," or " very," or by some 
circumlocution like that in the last example below. 
Thus : — 

Ipsa sjjes inopiam sustentabat, their hope itself (or their 
very hope) made their want endurable ; a multis ipsa virtus 
contemnitur, virtue herself is despised by many; praecipitur 
ut nobismet ipsis imperemus, it is taught that we should exer- 
cise control over ourselves ; medici ipsi se curare rion possunt, 
physicians cannot cure themselves ; Lucretia se ipsa interemit, 
Lucretia killed herself with her own hand. 

Cf. also the first example under 447. 

a. The Romans had a fancy for making ipse agree with the 
subject, as in the last two examples, where we put " self " with 
the object. 

(2.) To refer (in the same way that se refers to the 
subject of its own sentence), to a person or thing in an- 
other sentence connected with its own ; as : — 

Ariovistus respondit, si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, etc. 

See this example under 447 on preceding page, and also cf. 445, 2, b. 

449. The reciprocal meaning of the English " each 
other," " one another," is expressed in Latin as fol- 
lows : — 



REFLEXIVE AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS. 255 

(1.) By inter nos, inter vos, and, for the third person, 
when the reference is to a nominative or an accusative, 
by inter se ; otherwise by inter ipsos. Thus : — 

Inter nos natura coniunctl sumus, we are bound to each 
other by natural ties -, fratres inter se cum forma turn moribus 
similes, brothers resembling each other in both person and char- 
acter (Cic.) ; ferds inter sese coneiliat natura, nature makes 
wild beasts agree with one another (Cic.) ; incidunt aliqua a 
doctis etiam inter ipsos mutud reprehensa, some things come 
in which learned people reciprocally blame in each other 
(Quint.). 

a. With inter se a reflexive accusative or dative is omitted ; 
as : — 

Pueri amant (sc. se) inter se, the boys love each other; 
elves inter se (sc. sibi) gratuldbantur, the citizens congratu- 
lated each other. 

(2.) Or alter, repeated in a different case, may be used 
when only two persons or things are meant ; alius, if 
more than two are meant. The plural of alter is used of 
two parties. Thus : — 

Milites alius alium liortatur, the soldiers encourage one 
another ; noxii ambo alter in alterum causam conferunt, both 
being guilty they each throw the blame upon the other ; alter! 
alteros vincere quovis modd volunt, each side wishes to beat the 
other by any possible means. 

Cf. also, homines inter se alii aliis prodesse volunt, men 
wish to benefit each other reciprocally. 

(3.) Or a noun or pronoun may be repeated in a differ- 
ent case. Thus : — 

Tantae fuerunt tenebrae ut per biduum nemo hominem 
homo agnosceret, the darkness was so great that for two days 
men could not recognize each other at all (Cic, N. D., ii., 38, 
96) ; Atticus moriens non ex vita sed ex dom5 in domum 
migrare videbatur, Atticus in dying seemed not to be moving 
out of life but out of one home into another (cf. Nep., xxv., 22) ; 



256 SYNTAX. 

neque dliudicarl posset uter utri virtute anteferendus vide- 
retur, nor could it be decided which of the two seemed more 
admirable in valor than the other (Caes., B. G., v., 44). 

Demonstrative Pronouns. 

In addition to what was said of the demonstratives in 
181, the following points deserve notice : — - 

450. (1.) Hie (especially the neuter hoc) is used to 
refer to something immediately to be introduced ; but if 
the thing is to be marked emphatically as opposed to other 
things said, ille (especially illud) is used. Thus : — 

Inter omnes hoc constat, virorum esse fortium toleranter 
dolorem patl, all men are agreed upon this point, that to suffer 
pain with patient endurance is characteristic of brave men ; hoo 
modo locutus est, he spoke as follows. 

But : cum multa alia mlrabilia stint turn illud imprimis, 
not only are there many other admirable things, but this is es- 
pecially admirable ; illud vero Idem Caecilius vitiosius, but 
the following remark of the same Caecilius is more reprehen- 
sible (Cic, Sen., 8, 25). 

(2.) Ille often refers to that whieli is well known, fa- 
mous, or of general notoriety. Thus : — 

Medea ilia, the Medea of story ; magno ill! Alexandro si- 
millimus, closely resembling the (well known) great Alexander. 

(3.) Is is used as the antecedent of a relative which 
describes a class of persons or things = " he who," " the 
one who," " such as." Thus : — 

Eum qui palam est adversarius facile cavendo vltare pos- 
sls, one who is openly an enemy you can easily escape by 
guarding against him ; neque enim tu is es qui quid sis ties- 
cms, for you are not such a person as not to know what you 
are (Cic). 

a. Is is sometimes used to resume mention of a preceding 
subject where it seems unnecessary ; as : — 

Servus metis auftigit ; is est in provincial tua, a slave o£ 
mine has run away ; he is in your domain. 



DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 257 

b. When "that" or "those of" is used in English instead of 
the repetition of a noun, no pronoun is used in Latin. Thus : — 

Philippus hostium mantis saepe vttavit, suorum effugere non 
valuit, Philip often escaped the hands of his enemies, but did 
not succeed in avoiding those of his own subjects (Curt.) ; Nu- 
mae regnum multo erat pacatius quam Romuli, Numa's reign 
was much more peaceful than that of Romulus. (Cf. also 
353, e). 

Relative Pronouns. 

In addition to what was said in 342-344 about rela- 
tive pronouns, the following points should be noted : — 

451. The relative is often used to connect an indepen- 
dent sentence with what has gone before, where in English 
a different form of connection is used. Thus : — 

Multas ad res perutiles Xenophontis libri sunt, quds legite, 
quaeso, s^^'ose,*Xenophon's works are very profitable in many- 
respects, and I beg you read them zealously ; quae cum ita 
sint, Catillna, perge quo coepisti, now since this is so, Catiline, 
go on as you have begun. 

a. A special instance of this connecting relative is seen in the 
use of quod si, quod nisi, for " but if," " and if," or " if not," 
where the quod is really accusative of specification. 

452. The Latin expresses " such is my, your," etc., and 
" so-called, " by a relative, as follows : — 

Quae tua est prtldentia, such is your discretion ; si mihi ne- 
gotium permtsisses, qui metis in te amor est, confecissem, if 
you had entrusted the business to me, I should have accom- 
plished it, such is my love for you ; vestra quae dicitur * vita, 
your so-called life. 

453. The difference between Latin and English use 
should be observed in relative clauses like the follow- 
ing:— 

ThrasybTdo corona a popido data est, quam quod amor 

* In this use the relative clause is usually thus inserted between an at- 
tributive and its noun. 



258 SYNTAX. 

clvium dederat nullam habuit invidiam, a wreath was given by 
the people to Thrasybulus which caused do envy because the 
love of his countrymen had given it ; adsentior Platonl quern 
tu quantl facias scio, I agree with Plato, and I know how highly 
you esteem him ; non satis polltus es els artibus, quas qui 
tenent erudltl appellantur, you are not well enough perfected 
in those branches which cause their possessors to be called edu- 
cated. 

Indefinite Pronouns. 

The following points in the use of the indefinite pro- 
nouns should be noted : — 

454. Quisquam is the most general of the indefi- 
nite pronouns, and means " anybody at all." Qulvls and 
qiiilibet are nearly as indefinite, meaning " any one you 
please." Thus : — 

Quamdiu quisquam erit, qui te defendere audeat, wives, 
as long as there shall be anybody who will venture to defend 
you, you shall live (Cic, Cat., i., 2, 6) ; si quisquam est timi- 
dus in magnls perlcidoslsque rebus, is ego sum, if any one is 
timid in great and dangerous things, I am he (Cic, Fam., vi., 
14, l) ; cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest, what 
can happen to anybody at all, can happen to anybody you will 
(L e., to everybody) (Sen., Tr., 11, 6) ; omnia sunt eiusmodl 
qui vis ut perspicere possit, all are of such a nature that any 
one you please can understand them (Cic.) ; hie apud maiores 
nostros adhibebatur perltus, nunc quilibet, in such a case an 
expert used to be employed in the time of our ancestors, now 
any one at all [will do] (Cic.) ; non cuivis homirii contingit, 
it does not fall to every man's good fortune (Hor.). 

a. Sometimes the verb part of qulvls and quilibet is inflected. 
Thus : — 

Dominus vino quid volet faciet, the master will do what- 
ever he likes with the wine (Cato, R. B., 47 and 48, 2) ; fa- 
cile cui velles tuam causam probares, you could have proved 
your case to any one you wished (Cic, Verr., iv., 12, 28). 



INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 259 

455. (1.) Quisquam, with the corresponding adjec- 
tive ullus, is used especially in negative sentences, or sen- 
tences implying a negation. Thus : — 

Neque ex castrls Catillnae quisquam omnium dlscesserat, 
nor had any one at all deserted from Catiline's camp (Cic.) ; 
nee ull5 casu potest eontingere ut ulla intermlssio flat offici, 
nor can it by any chance happen that there be any interruption 
of the obligation of duty (Cic.) ; an quisquam potest sine 
pevturbatidne mentis Irascl ? or can any one indulge in anger 
without disturbance of his mental equipoise ? (Cic, Tusc., iv., 
24, 54) ; taetrior Me tyrannies Syracusanls fuit quam quis- 
quam superidrum, this tyrant was more loathsome to the peo- 
ple of Syracuse than any of his predecessors (Cic). 

a. Instead of non quisquam, unless the pronoun is rather em- 
phatic, nemo or nihil is used, and similarly nullus instead of 
non ullus. Nullus, besides its adjective use, supplies the place of 
the genitive and ablative singular and the plural of nemo, and the 
cases of nihil other than nominative and accusative singular.* 

b. Nemo is used, not nullus, with adjectives used as substan- 
tives ; as, nemo Romanics, no Roman. 

456. Quis (qui) is the unemphatic " any," " one," 
and is used chiefly after si, nisi, ne, num, and the pro- 
nouns, as quo, quanto, etc. Thus : — 

Si quis mlratur, if any one wonders ; num. quis hoc nescit ? 
does not every one know this ? iustitiae primum munus est ut 
ne cui quis noceat, the first injunction of justice is that one 
shall harm no one ; detrahere quid de aliquo, to take away 
something from somebody. 

a. After si, nisi, ne, num, the forms quis and qui are used 
indifferently as substantives or adjectives ; otherwise, as with 
the interrogative pronoun, quis is substantive, qui, adjective. 

457. Aliquis, some one or other, any one, is less 
indefinite than quis, as is seen especially after si, nisi, ne, 
etc. Thus : — 

SI est aliqui sens us in morte praeclarorum virorum, if 
* There is, however, also a declined form of nihil. (Cf. 137, 1, a.) 



260 SYNTAX. 

illustrious men have some consciousness when dead (Cic, Sest., 
62, I3l) ; timebat Pompeius omnia ne aliquid vos timeretis, 
Pompey watched all things with anxiety that you might have 
no anxiety (Cic). 

a. Aliquis is especially, common in the emphatic meaning 
some at least. Thus : — 

Est hoe aliquid, tametsi non est satis, this is something at 
least, although it is not enough (Cic, Caec., 15, 47) ; multi sine 
doctrina aliquid omnium generum et art hem consequontur, 
many without teaching acquire something in all branches of 
learning (Cic). 

458. Quis-piam, some one, is more definite than aliquis. 
Thus : — 

Hereditas est pecunia, quae morte alicuius ad quempiam 
pervenit iure, an inheritance is money which at some one's 
death comes to a person legally (Cic) ; quaeret fortasse quis- 
piam, some one will perhaps ask. 

459. Quidam, some particular one, is the most definite 
of these pronouns, and implies that a person or thing is 
definitely known, though indefinitely described. Thus : — 

Quidam de conlegis nostris, one of my colleagues (Cic) ; 
sets me quodam tempore Metapontum venisse tecum, you know 
that at a certain time I went with you to Metapontum (Cic). 

a. Quidam often expresses what in English is denoted by 
" a sort of ; " as : — 

Milvo est quoddam helium naturale cum corvo, the kite 
has a sort of natural antagonism toward the crow (Cic, JV. D., 
ii., 49, 125). 

460. When only two persons or things are referred to, 
the following pronouns are used : — 

alter, the other. uter ? which ? 

neuter, neither. uter que, both. 

Corresponding to the following, if more than two are 
referred to : — 

alius, another. quis ? who ? 

nemo, nullus, none. quis que, each. 



INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. — THE VERB. 261 

a. Ambo is used for " both " only when the thing said applies 
in the same way to the two objects ; otherwise uterque is used ; 
as : — 

Caesar atque Pompeius diversa sibi ambo consilia capiunt 
. . . eddemque die uterque eorum ex castris exercitum edu- 
cunt, Caesar and Pompey both adopt different plans, . . . but 
on the same day both lead out their armies from camp (Caes., 
B. C, iii., 30). 

b. Alter is used for the English " one's neighbor ; " as : — 
Nihil alterius causa facere, to do nothing for one's neigh- 
bor's sake. 

c. The following distinctions should be observed : — 

alter = the other ; alteri =z the other party. 
alius = another ; alii = others. 
ceterl = all the others, the rest. 
alteruter = one or the other. 
Cf. also 449, 2. 

d. For the convenience of the pupil the following series of 
the words for number is given : — 

pauci = a few, only a few. 

aliquot = some, not many, several. 

nonnfdll = some (indeterminate). 

plures = several, rather many. 

multi = many. 

plurimi = very many. 

plerique = most. 
unusquisque = each and all. 

Syntax of the Verb. 

Tenses. 

461. The imperfect, present, and future mark an 
action or event simply as taking place (beginning or con- 
tinuing) in the present, past, or future respectively. 

462. The perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect 
mark an action or event as completed. 



262 SYNTAX. 

(1.) The perfect marks something as completed 
either («) in the present (perfect definite) or (6) in 
the indefinite past (i. c, without reference to any other 
event — historical perfect or aorist).* Thus : — 

(a.) \_Natura~] oculos membranis tenuissimis vestivit et 
saepsit, nature has clothed and protected the eye with a very 
delicate membrane (Cic, JSf. D., ii., 57, 142). 

(b.) Ita tantum helium . . . extrema hieme adparavit, 
ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit, thus he got 
ready for this great war in the last part of winter, entered upon 
it at the beginning of spring, and finished it in mid-summer 
(Cic, Leg. Man., 12, 35). 

(2.) The pluperfect marks something as completed 
at or before the beginning of some other past action or 
event. Thus : — 

Pyrrhi temporibus iam Apollo versus facer e desierat, in 
the time of Pyrrhus Apollo had already ceased to give oracles 
(Cic, Div., ii., 56, 116). 

(3.) The future perfect marks something as com- 
pleted at or before the time of some other future action 
or event. Thus : — 

Cum tu haec leges, ego Caesarem forlasse convenero, 
when you are reading this I shall perhaps have met Caesar. 

The following points in the use of the tenses deserve special 
mention : — 

463. Statements which are true of all time, and have 
therefore a special interest in the present, such as general 
truths, are expressed by the present tense. Thus : — 

Labor omnia vincit, labor conquers all things. 

a. Sometimes a general statement, instead of being thus 
directly stated by the present, is implied by a perfect (on the 
principle that what has often happened is the natural thing to 

* The pupil should perhaps he -warned that the Romans did not feel 
this difference as we feel it. Otherwise, they would prohahly have ex- 
pressed it by a difference of form. 



TENSES. 263 

expect). The perfect in this use is sometimes called the gnomic 
perfect, but the general nature of the tense in these cases is 
so evidently perfect that a special name seems undesirable, 
Thus : — 

Ave iritia pecuniae studium habet, quam nemo sapiens con- 
cupivit, greed involves a zeal for money which no wise man 
desires* (Sail., Cat. ,11, 3) ; ob debilitatem animl multl pa- 
rentes, multl aniicos nonnulU patriam, plerique autem se ipsos 
penitus perdiderunt, through weakness of mind many utterly 
ruin their parents, many their friends, some their country, and 
most people themselves (Cic, Fin., i., 15, 49) ; non domus et 
fundus, non aeris acervus et auri aegroto domino deduxit 
covpore febres, non animo curds, not houses and lands nor heaps 
of coin take away disease from the ailing body of their owner 
or care from his mind (Hor., Epist., i., 2, 47). 

464. The present and imperfect are often used of 
repeated or customary actions, and of attempted or in- 
tended actions. Thus : — 

Cottidie in senatum venit Catilina, Catiline comes daily to 
the Senate ; haec audiebant anted, nunc vident, they used to 
hear these things before, now they see them ; in exsilium eicie- 
bam quern iam ingressum esse in bellum videbam ? was I try- 
ing to drive into exile a man who I saw had already actually 
entered upon war? (Cic, Cat., ii., 6, 14). 

465. The present is used in giving the statements of 
past writers whose works are still extant ; as : — 

Homerus dicit e Nestoris lingua melle dulciorem fluxisse 
sernionem, Homer says that from Nestor's tongue flowed speech 
sweeter than honey. 

466. The present is sometimes used instead of the 
historical perfect in lively narration, to make a more 
vivid picture (historical present). Thus : — 

Desiliunt ex equis, pro volant in primum, they spring from 
their horses, they fly to the front (Liv., iii., 62, 8). 

* I. e., none ever has desired, and therefore we may infer that none 
ever will do so. 



264 SYNTAX. 

467. "With iam diidum, iam diu, iam pridem, and 
sometimes without these words, the present and imperfect 
are used, where in English tbe perfect and pluperfect are 
preferred, to indicate an action which has been going on 
some time and is still going on (present), or which at a 
certain past time had been and was still going on (im- 
perfect). Thus: — 

Iam diu Ignoro quid agas, I have long been in ignorance as 
to how you are ; tot annos bellum gero, all these years I have 
been waging war ; audiebat iam diidum verba, he had heard 
the words for some time. 

468. With dum (== " while ") the present is regularly 
used to denote an action going on at the same time as 
another, even when the two actions belong to past time. 

Thus: — 

Dum ego in Sicilia sum, nulla statua deiecta est, while I 
was in Sicily not a statue was overthrown (Cic, Verr., ii., 66, 161). 

Note. In the meaning's " until " and " as long as," dum takes the past 
tenses for past actions. Also in the meaning " while," if the main verh 
denotes a continued action or state (often in Livy and once or twice earlier). 

469. With postquam Qposteaquani), " after," and 
with the expressions for " as soon as " — ubi, ubl primum, 
ut, ut primum, cum primum, simul ac (simul atque or 
simul alone), — the perfect is the regular tense, though 
the pluperfect would seem more logically exact. Thus : — 

Sed postquam aspexi, tiled cognovi, but after I looked at 
[it] I recognized it at once (Ter., Heaut., iv., 1, 43) ; Pom- 
peius, ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit, as 
soon as Pompey saw his cavalry routed he withdrew from battle 
(Caes., B. C, iii., 94) ; cum prlmum Romam veni, nihil 
prius faciendum mihi putavi, quam ut tibi gratularer, as soon 
as I (had) reached Rome, I thought it my first duty to tender 
you my congratulations. 

a. But the imperfect is used if a situation is to be described as 
a continued action ; the pluperfect, if as the result of an action ; 
as : — 



TENSES. 265 

Ut domum reducebatur, fit obviam el C. Curio, when he 
was being escorted home, Gains Curio met him ; ut ad mare 
excubuerant, accessere hostes, as soon as they had got their 
guard posted, the enemy drew near. 

b. Or if a distinct interval of time has elapsed between the 
event introduced by postquam and the main event, the clause 
with jpostquam regularly takes the pluperfect ; as : — 

Hannibal anno tertio postquam domo profugerat cum 
qumque navibus Africam accessit, in the third year after he 
had gone into exile, Hannibal went to Africa with live ships 
(Nep., Han., 8). 

Cf. the English use of tenses with " after " and " as soon as." 

470. Other cases where a different tense is used in 
Latin from the one which English would lead us to ex- 
pect are as follows : — 

(1.) In letters sometimes an imperfect (or historical perfect) 
is used for the present, or a pluperfect for a perfect. The 
writer thus puts himself at the time when the letter will be read 
(epistolary imperfect and pluperfect). Thus : — 

Nihil habebam quod scriberem ; neque enim novi quic- 
quam audiveram, I have nothing to write, for I have heard 
nothing new. 

(2.) A perfect or pluperfect is used in dependent clauses 
(especially with cum, si, etc.) indicating a customary action or 
event, where English usage would lead us to expect a present 
or imperfect.* Thus : — 

Cum ad villam veni, hoc ijjsum nihil agere et plane cessare 
me delectat, when I come to my country seat, this very doing 
nothing and absolutely resting delight me (Cic, Or., 2, 6) ; cum 
rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur, whenever he saw 
a rose, he thought spring was beginning (Cic, Verr., v., 10, 27). 

(3.) In subordinate clauses depending on a past tense and 
stating something which was true at the time mentioned and is 

* The present or imperfect in the main clause shows the repetition of 
the act, and the subordinate clause is regarded more directly from the time 
of the main clause than in English. 



266 SYNTAX. 

still true, the imperfect is sometimes used where the present 
might be expected. Thus : — 

Pastum animantibus large et copiose iiatura eum qui cuique 
aptus erat comparavit, nature generously and abundantly pre- 
pared for the animals that food which was suited to each 
(Cic, N. D., ii., 47, 121) ; vide, ne, cum omnes rectae animi 
adfectiones virtutes adpellentur, non sit hoc proprium nomen 
omnium, sed ab ea, quae una ceteris excellebat, omnes nomi- 
natae sint, see, lest, while all right dispositions of the mind are 
called virtues, this name does not properly belong to all, but all 
are named from the one which in itself surpasses all the others 
(Cic, Tusc, ii., 18, 43). 

(4.) The imperfect is sometimes used to express surprise at 
something just discovered, though it has been going on for some 
time ; as : — 

Eheu, pater ml, tit hie eras ? ah ! father, you here ? Cf . 
also the pluperfect, haud aspexeram. I didn't see [you] (Ter., 
Ad., 373). 

(5.) The perfect is sometimes used instead of a future per- 
fect to indicate vividly what will happen if something else hap- 
pens (as if it had already happened). Thus : — 

[Brutus'] si conservatus erit, vicimus, if Brutus shall be 
saved, we have conquered (Cic, Fam., xii., 6, 2). 

471. The perfect is sometimes used to express what has 
been the case, but is so no longer. Thus : — 

Fuimus Troes, we are no longer Trojans (Verg., Aen., ii., 
325) ; trlste enim est nomen ipsum carendl quia subicitur haec 
vis : habuit non habet, for the very word " deprivation " is 
melancholy, because the meaning " had but has no longer " 
underlies it (Cic, Tusc, i., 36, 87). 

a. In a few verbs the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect 
have acquired the meaning of the present, imperfect, and future 
of a kindred verb. Thus : nosed, find out ; novl, know (i. e., 
have found out). So odl = I hate, memini = I remember. 

Note. The tenses in Latin are used in general -with much greater 
exactness than in English, and the Romans were particularly fond of the 
future perfect tense. 



TENSES. — SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 267 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Note. In its original shape in the Indo-European the sub- 
junctive seems to have been a tense rather than a mood, having 
about the meaning indicated by the English " am going to." 
This meaning soon broadened so as to include that kind of in- 
determinate futurity involved in the ideas which we express by 
" may," " could," "would," etc. It is this quality in the mood 
as we find it in Latin which explains the absence of special 
future tense forms,* and which is also at the bottom of the dis- 
tinction which grew up between the subjunctive and the indica- 
tive ; namely, that while the indicative represents a thing as a 
fact of the past, present, or future, the subjunctive came to mark 
a thing as something conceived in the mind merely (i. e., as 
something which might or would be a fact, if the thinker's idea 
should be realized). This notion of indeterminate futurity is 
more or less distinctly traceable in the four uses of the subjunc- 
tive in Independent Sentences. (See 472-475.) 

Subjunctive in Independent Sentences. 
Hortatory Subjunctive. 
472. The hortatory subjunctive expresses (1) an 

EXHORTATION or ENTREATY ; (2) a COMMAND or PROHI- 
BITION ; (3) an obligation ; (4) a concession. The 
negative is ne. Thus : — 

(1.) Meminerimus etiam adversus infimos iustitiam esse 
servandam, let us remember that justice must be observed even 
towards the humblest (Cic, Off., i., 13, 41). 

(2.) Vlribus utare, dum adsint, cum absint, ne requiras, 
use your strength while it lasts, but when it is gone do not pine 
for it (Cic, Sen., 10, 33) ; suum quisque noscat ingenium, let 
every one study his own temperament ; ddnis impit ne placare 
audeant deos, let not the impious venture to try to propitiate 

* If it was desirable to guard against a possible ambiguity, or to empha- 
size distinctly the notion of futurity, the Romans used periphrastic forms 
(facturus sim, essem, etc.). 



268 SYNTAX. 

the gods with gifts (Cic.) ; nihil incommodo valetudinis tuae 
feceris, do nothing prejudicial to your health (Cic). 

(3.) TJt homost, ita morem geras, you must regulate your 
conduct by the character of your master (i. e., like master, like 
man) (Ter., Ad., 431) ; quae hlc erant, curares, you should 
have looked out for what were here (Ter., Hec, 230) ; ne 
poposcisses, you should not have asked (Cic, Att., ii., 1, 3). 

(4.) Sed ierit ad bellum, dissenserit non a te solum, 
verum etiam a fratribus : hi te orant tul, but grant that he 
went to the war, that he took the other side not only from you 
but also from his brothers : they — and they were on your side 
— beg you [to spare him] (Cic, Lig., 12, 35) ; ne sint in 
senectute vires : ne postnlantur quidem vires a senectute, 
suppose there is no strength in old age: neither is strength 
demanded from old age (Cic, Sen., 11, 34) ; decies centena 
dedisses huic pared panels contento, suppose you had given 
this frugal fellow whose wants are few some million or so 
(Hor., Sat., L, 3, 15). 

a. The singular of the second person of the present tense 
is not used, until after Livy's time, for commands, exhortations, 
or prohibitions, unless the subject is indefinite (i. e., "you"== 
" any one "). (Cf. the examples.) 

b. In the perfect tense the second person is used in com- 
mands and exhortations only when they are negative (i. e., when 
they are really prohibitions). The imperative is used for posi- 
tive commands, etc. (See 527.) 

c. The perfect and pluperfect differ from the present and im- 
perfect respectively only in the greater precision which comes 
from the notion of completed action, but even this distinction in 
the case of the present and perfect is almost intangibly subtle. 

d. Commands, exhortations, entreaties, and prohibitions natu- 
rally occur only in the primary tenses (present and perfect). 

Optative Subjunctive. 
473. The optative subjunctive is used to express a 
wish, sometimes alone, sometimes with utinam or ut, 
" O that ! " The negative is ne. Thus : — 



SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. 269 

Valeant elves mei, sint incolumes, sint bedti, may my 
countrymen prosper in safety and happiness (Cic, Mil., 34, 
93) ; ne vlvam si scio, may I die, if I know (Cic, Att., iv., 
16) ; falsus utinam vates sim, oh, may I prove mistaken in my 
prophecy ! (Liv., xxi., 10, 10) ; utinam P. Clodvus viveret, 
would that Publius Clodius were living ! (Cic, Mil., 38, 103) ; 
utin9.ni nie mortuum vidisses, would that you had seen me 
dead (Cic, Q. Fr., i., 3, l). 

a. The present and perfect imply nothing as to the fulfillment 
of the wish, but the perfect is chiefly confined to early Latin 
and the poets. The imperfect implies the non-fulfillment of the 
wish in present time, the pluperfect in past time. 

b. Utinam or ut is almost always used when the tense is 
imperfect or pluperfect. These particles tend to give more for- 
mality or solemnity to the expression of the wish. 

c. Sometimes instead of the simple subjunctive, velim, nolim, 
mdlim, vellem, nollem, mallem, or cuperem, is used with the 
substance of the wish added in the infinitive or subjunctive. 
Thus : — 

Tuam mihi dan velim, Cotta, eloquentiam, I wish your elo- 
quence might be given me, Cotta (Cic, N. D., ii., 59, 147) ; 
vellem adesse posset Panaetius, would that Panaetius could 
be here now. 

Note. Here velim, nollem, etc., are potential subjunctives (see 474). 
For the dependent subjunctive (like posset in the second example), see 
491. 

Potential Subjunctive. 

474. The potential subjunctive is used to express 
the shades of possibility and kindred ideas indicated in 
English by an unemphatic " may," " might," " can," 
"could," or " would." The negative is non (Jiaud, etc.). 
Thus : — 

Sic quaerat quisjjia??i, at this point some one may ask (Cic, 
JV. D.j ii., 53, 133) ; Platdnem nee nimis valde nee nimis 
saepe laudaveris, you cannot [could not] praise Plato too highly 
or too often (Cic, Legg., iii., 1, l) ; hoc sine iilld dubitdtione 



270 SYNTAX. 

conflrmaverim eloquentiam rem esse omnium difficillimam, 
this I would venture to assert without any hesitation, that elo- 
quence is the hardest thing in the world [to acquire] (Cic, 
Brut., 6, 25) ; itaque haud facile discerneres utrum impe- 
ratori an exereitul carior esset, therefore you could not easily 
tell whether he [Hannibal] was dearer to the general or to the 
army (Liv., xxi., 4, 3) ; nulla profecto alia gens tanta mole 
cladis non obruta esset, any other nation would have been 
buried beneath such a mass of disaster (Liv., xxii., 54, 10). 

a. The primary tenses are used when the situation referred 
to is present, the secondary tenses when a past situation is in- 
volved. The distinction between the perfect and pluperfect on 
the one hand and the present and imperfect on the other is the 
same as in the hortatory use of the subjunctive. (See 472, c.) 

b. The potential subjunctive is often used to put a statement 
mildly for courtesy's sake, and is then called by the special 
name Subiunctivus modestiae. Thus : — 

Pace tua, patria, dixerim, with your permission, O my 
country, I would say (Cic, Mil., 38, 103) ; haud sciam an, I 
could not tell whether (Cic, Tusc, iii., 24, 55). Cf. also the 
third example, above (conflrmaverim). 

c. The second person singular of a general subject (" you " = 
" one," " anybody ") is especially common : as : — 

Quern neque gloria neque pericula excitant, nequiquam hor- 
tere. him, whom neither glory nor danger rouses, you will ex- 
hort in vain (Sail., Cat., 58, 2). Cf. also the second example, 
above (laudaveris). 

d. If the potential idea is to be brought out emphatically, the 
verbs possum, can, and licet, may, are used. With these and 
similar verbs, as debed, oportet, etc, and with adjectives of like 
meaning used with sum, sometimes also others, the indicative is 
often used where a potential subjunctive might be expected. The 
potential idea is here sufficiently indicated by the meaning of 
the word used. Thus : — 

Perturbationes animorum poteram morbos appellare, sed 
non conveniret ad omnia, I might call disturbances of the soul 



SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT CLAUSES. 271 

diseases, but [the word] would not apply to all cases (Cic, Fin., 
iii., 10, 35) ; quanta melius fuerat, in hoc promissum patris 
non esse servatum, how much better it would have been in this 
case for the father's promise not to have been kept (Cic, Off., 
iii., 25, 94) ; fuit tanti, mihi crede ; haberes quod defenderes, 
it would have been worth the price, believe me ; you would have 
some defense ; possum persequl permulta oblectamenta rerum 
rusticarum, sed ea ipsa, quae dixl, sentio fuisse longiora, I 
might tell of very many delights of farming, but I feel that 
what I have said has itself been rather long (Cic, Sen., 16, 55) ; 
longum est ea dicere ; sed hoe breve dicam, it were a long 
task to say that, but this I will say briefly (Cic, Sest., 5, 12). 

Note. The present indicative is thus often used where in English the 
past potential is preferred, as in the last two examples. 

Dubiiative Subjunctive. 

475. The dubitative subjunctive is used to put a 
question for rhetorical effect, where no answer is ex- 
pected. Thus : — 

Quid faciam, what can I do? (Hor., Sat., ii., 1, 24); 
quid facerem, what could I do ? (Verg., Ec, i., 40) ; quid 
hoe homine faciatis, what would you do with such a man ? sed 
quaero a te, cur C. Cornelium non defenderem, but I ask 
you, why should I not have undertaken the defense of Gaius 
Cornelius ? (Cic, Vat., 2, 5) ; ego te r oidere noluerim, I un- 
willing to see you ? 

a. The present (or future) applies to a present situation, the 
imperfect and (rare) perfect to a past situation. Further- 
more, in questions in positive form the present implies doubt 
simply, the imperfect implies that no other course than the one 
adopted was natural or possible. Questions in negative form 
imply that the doubt suggested is too preposterous to consider. 
(Cf. the examples.) 

Note. The potential and dubitative subjunctives may, of course, oc- 
cur in dependent clauses, especially in indirect questions. Thus : — 

Hoc spatio plura facinora in se victl ediderunt quam Infestl edidissent 
victores, during 1 this time the conquered performed more hostile acts against 



272 SYNTAX. 

themselves than angry conquerors would have done (Liv., xxxi., 18, 8); 
pudet ; nee quid agam neque quid huic respondeam scio, I am ashamed, 
and know not what to do or what answer to give him (Ter., Ad., 485 ) 

Cf . also the Constructions of Indirect Discourse, 514 ff. 

For Concessive Dependent Clauses see 478-480. 



Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses. 
Conditional Sentences. 

Note. The clause containing the condition proper (i. e., the "if" 
clause) is called the protasis, the other clause the apodosis or conclu- 
sion. 

476. (1.) The indicative is used in conditional 
sentences to denote what is, was, or will be true, if some- 
thing else is, was, or shall be true. 

(2.) The subjunctive is used in conditional sentences 
to denote what would be or would have been true, if 
something else were, should be, or had been true. 

a. With the indicative, therefore, the supposed case is treated 
as a, fact, as to the existence of which the speaker or writer is 
uncertain ; with the primary tenses of the subjunctive the sup- 
posed case is treated as something merely assumed for argu- 
ment ; with the secondary tenses of the subjunctive the supposed 
case is treated as not a fact. 

b. The perfect subjunctive differs from the present only in 
marking completed action. The imperfect refers to present 
time or to a state or continued action in the past ; the pluperfect 
to past time. 

Note. The indicative implies nothing as to the reality of the protasis, 
but asserts the reality of the apodosis, if the reality of the protasis be 
granted. The primary tenses of the subjunctive, in representing the case 
as merely assumed, hint that it is not actual, but indicate nothing as to its 
probability or even possibility, except that in so far as they involve a refer- 
ence to the future they do not mark the case as distinctly impossible. The 
secondary tenses of the subjunctive mark the case distinctly as not actual, 
and are the only tenses that can be used when the supposed case is impos- 
sible, although they do not themselves mark it as impossible or even im- 
probable. Thus : — 



CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 



273 



477. Indicative. 

Si id facis, hodie postre- 
mum me vides, if this is what 
you are doing you see me to- 
day for the last time (Ter., 
And., 322). 

Quid ? si tyrannidem oc- 
cupdre, si patriam prodere 
conabitur pater, silebitne 
fllius ? again, if a father at- 
tempt to make himself ruler 
unconstitutionally, if he try to 
betray his country, will the son 
keep silent about it ? (Cic, Off., 
iii., 23, 90). 

Si mihi bona re publico, 
frui non licuerit, at careb5 
mala, if I may not enjoy a 
good government I shall at 
least not live under a bad one 
(Cic, Mil., 34, 93). 

Ratidnem antiqui philo- 
sophic sententiae suae non fere 
reddebant, nisi quid erat 
numerls aut descriptionibus 
explicandum, the philosophers 
of old were not in the habit 
of giving an account of their 
opinions unless they had to ex- 
plain something by arithmetic 
or geometry (Cic, Tusc, i., 17, 
38). 

Sic agam: si quid venale 
habuit Heius, si id, quantl 
aestinidbat, tantl vendidit, 
desino quaerere cur enter is, 



Subjunctive. 

Ego si Sclpionis deside- 
rio me moverl negem, men- 
tiar, if I should say that I was 
not affected by a longing for 
Scipio, I should lie (Cic, Am., 
3, 10). 

Si gladium quis apud te 
sana mente deposuerit, re- 
petat insaniens, reddere pec- 
catum sit, if anybody should, 
being in sound mind, put a 
sword into your keeping and 
demand it in a fit of insanity, 
it would be wrong to return it 
(Cic, Off., iii., 25, 95). 

Si aut collegam, id quod 
mallem, tui similem, L. A emi- 
li, haberes, aut tu collegae tui 
esses similis, supervacanea 
esset oratio mea, if you had, 
as I should prefer, a colleague 
like yourself, Lucius Aemilius, 
or if you were like your col- 
league, my words would be su- 
perfluous (Liv., xxii., 39, l). 

Nunc quemadmodum au- 
diar sentio, at turn si dice- 
rem, non audirer, I see how 
attentively I am listened to 
now, but if I had spoken then 
1 should not have been listened 
to (Cic, Clu., 29, 80). 

Si Metelli fidel diffisus 
essem, iudicem eum non re- 
tinuissem, if I had distrusted 



274 SYNTAX. 

I will put it in this way : if the honor of Metellus, I should 

Heius had anything- to sell, and not have retained him upon the 

if he sold it for as much as he jury (cf. Cic, Verr., Act 1, 31). 

asked, I stop inquiring why Ergo ego nisi peperissem, 

you bought it (Cic, Verr., iv., Roma rion oppugnaretur ; 

5, io). nisi f Ilium haberem, libera 

Vel officio, si quid de- in libera jpatria mortua es- 

buerat, vel errorl, si quid sem, therefore, if I had not 

nescierat, satisfaction esse been a mother, Rome would 

duxit, he thought he had met not be under siege ; if I did 

all the demands of allegiance not have a son, I should have 

if he had owed any, and had died in freedom in a free coun- 

made good his error if through try (Llv., ii., 40). 
ignorance he had made any 
(Cic, Deiot, 5, 13). 

a. The idea of non-fulfillment is not inherent in the secon- 
dary tenses of the subjunctive themselves. This idea comes 
from the feeling that the past is settled and irrevocable, and 
thus when a supposed case is referred to the past there is a 
much stronger feeling that the real state of the case was dif- 
ferent than when a supposed case is referred to the present 
or future. It occasionally happens, however, that a supposition 
is thrown into the past without any implication as to its fulfill- 
ment, and then the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are 
still used in Latin. Thus : — 

Si conlibuisset, ab ovo usque ad mala citaret " id Bac- 
chae" if the fancy had seized him, he would shout " Ho ! Bac- 
chants," till he dropped * (Hor., Sat., i., 3, 6). 

b. The distinction between the primary and secondary tenses 
as to the implication of non-fulfillment had not yet become 
fully established in the times of Plautus and Terence, and the 
present in their plays sometimes occurs of unfulfilled conditions. 
Thus : — 

* Literally, from the egg to the apples, i. e., from beginning- to end. 
Cf., in English, " from the soup to the fruit course." 

For the much commoner occurrence of this use in Indirect Discourse 
(real or implied), see 516. 



CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 275 

Adsum : nam si absim, haud reciisem, quin mihi male 
sit, met meum, I am here, for if I were away, I should make 
no objection to its going hard with me, my honey (Plaut., Cure, 
164) ; tu si hie sis, aliter sentias, if you were in my shoes, 
you would feel differently (Ter., And., 310). 

c. With verbs like possum, debeo, licet, etc., and other ex- 
pressions which in themselves denote necessity, possibility, 
power, duty, and the like, the indicative (imperfect, perfect, 
or pluperfect) is regularly used in classical Latin in the apodo- 
ses of conditions contrary to fact, where with other verbs the 
imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive is used. Thus : — 

Quod esse caput debebat, si probari posset, and this 
ought to be the main point, if it could be proved [as it cannot] 
(Cic, Fin., iv., 23) ; si unum diem morati essetis, morien- 
dum omnibus fuit, if you had delayed a single day, all would 
have had to die ; si mihi nondum aetas vacationem daret 
tamen aequum erat me dimitti, if my age did not yet justify 
my exemption (as it does), yet it were just that I should be 
discharged. 

Cf. also, under Potential Subjunctive, 474, d. 

d. General conditions (i. e., such as denote what repeat- 
edly or always happens under certain circumstances) are ex- 
pressed in Latin by the indicative, except in the two following 
cases : — 

(1.) The protasis has the subjunctive in the second person 
singular of the present when the subject is indefinite (i. e., 
" you " =: " any one "), while in the other persons the indicative 
is employed, however general the application of the thing said. 
Thus : — 

[Mens quoque et animus,'] nisi tamquam lumirii oleum In- 
stilles, exstinguuntur senectute, unless you drop oil into the 
lamp of the mind and soul, so to speak, their light goes out in 
old age (Cic, Sen., 11, 36) ; but, parvi sunt forls arma, nisi 
est consilium domi, prowess of arms abroad is of little worth 
unless there be wisdom at home (Cic, Off., i., 22, 76). 

(2.) If the general condition refers to the past, the protasis 



276 SYNTAX. 

has the imperfect (or pluperfect) subjunctive in the Augustan 
poets and later writers of both verse and prose, where the re- 
publican writers use the indicative. Thus : — 

Accusatores, si facultas incideret, poenls adficiebantur, the 
accusers were [in every case] visited with punishment, if oppor- 
tunity offered (Tac, Ann., vi., 30) ; but, si quod erat grande 
vas aut mains opus inventum, laeti adferebant, if any large 
vase or considerable work of art was found, they carried it to 
him [Verres] with joy (Cic, Verr., iv., 21, 47). 

Note. The subjunctive in case (2) is a product of Greek influence. 
It will be seen that in both (1) and (2) the apodosis has the indicative. 
(Cf. also 508, and 510, 1.) 

e. The protasis may be implied in some other form of expres- 
sion. Thus : — 

Roges me, qualem naturam deorum esse dilcam, nihil for- 
tasse respondeam, ask me what I think the nature of the 
gods is, and I shall perhaps have no answer to make (Cic, jV. 
D., i., 21, 57) ; nam absque te esset, liodie numquam ad 
solem occasum viverem, for had it not been for you, I should 
never have lived to see the sun set to-day (Plaut., Menn.,102±) ; 
non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem, I should not 
have thought [of it] unless reminded (Cic, de Dr., ii., 42, 
180) ; nemo umquam, sine magna spe immortalitatis, se 
pro patria of ferret ad mortem, no one would ever expose him- 
self to death for his country without a great hope of immortal 
glory [such as he now has] (Cic, Tusc, i., 15, 32). 

Note. In the development of language coordinate sentences were earlier 
than the subordinate constructions. This is well illustrated in such a sen- 
tence as the first example under e. It is but one step from roges me, 
nihil respondeam, to si me roges, nihil respondeam. The protasis in all 
subjunctive conditions was in this way developed from the hortatory sub- 
junctive, while the apodosis grew from the potential use, the two being col- 
lateral offshoots from the original notion of indeterminate futurity. 

/. So one form of expression may be used in the protasis, an- 
other in the apodosis ; and shades of meaning are thus some- 
times indicated, especially by the poets, which can hardly be re- 
tained in an English translation. Thus : — 



CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. — CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. 277 

Atque adeo, si facere possim, pietas prohibet, and in fact 
filial affection prevents, supposing I could do it (Plaut., Ps., 
290) ; cantus et e curru Lunam deducere temptat, et f aceret, 
si non aera repulsa sonent, incantation tries to draw down the 
moon from her chariot, and would do it if the cymbals were not 
beaten till the echo [prevented] (Tib., i., 8, 21) ; si volebas 
participdri, auferres dimidium domum, if you wanted to take 
a share, you might take half home (PL, True, iv., 2, 55) ; 
mirer, si vana vestra auctoritas ad plebem est, I should won- 
der if your influence counts for nothing with the commons 
(Liv., iii., 21, 4) ; si ipsa ratio minus perficiet, lit mortem 
neglegere possimus, at vita acta perficiat, ut satis superque 
vixisse videamur, if Reason herself does not make me indif- 
ferent to death, yet the experience of life would make me seem 
to have lived quite long enough (Cic, Tusc, i., 45, 109) ; Flavi, 
delicias tuas Catullo, nei sint inlepidae atque inelegantes, 
velles dicere nee tacere posses, you would want to tell Catul- 
lus of your love, Flavius, and could not keep silent unless she 
be sordid and not Yerv nice (Cat., 6, iff). 

Goncessive Clauses. 

478. With si, si mdxime, etsi, tametsi, etiam si, con- 
cessive clauses take the indicative or subjunctive under 
precisely the same circumstances as conditional clauses 
with si. Thus : — 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

In quibus si moderated Si haec non gesta audire- 
illa, quae in nostris solet esse tis, sed pieta videretis, ta- 
considibus, non fuit, at fuit men appareret uter esset in- 
pompa, fuit species, even if sidiator, even if you were not 
they had not that evenness of listening to these things as 
character which our consuls events described, but were look- 
are wont to have, yet they had ing at them delineated in col- 
an impressive dignity of man- or, yet you could tell which 
ner (Cic, Pis., 11, 24). was the one who laid the 

Nam si ego digna hac con- snare (Cic, Mil., 20, 54). 



278 



SYNTAX. 



tumelia sum maxume, at tu 
indlgnus, qui faceres tamen, 
for even though I deserve this 
insult ever so much, yet you 
were not the one to put it 
upon me (Ter., Eun., 865). 

Caesar, etsi nondum eorum 
cons ilia cognoverat, tamen 
ex eo, quod obsides dare inter- 
miserani, fore id, quod acci- 
dit, suspicabatur, although 
Caesar had not yet discovered 
their designs, yet from the fact 
that they had neglected to send 
the usual hostages, he began 
to suspect what proved to be 
the case (Caes., B. G., iv., 31). 

Tametsi statim vicisse de- 
bed, tamen de meo iure de- 
cedam, although an immediate 
victory is rightfully mine, I 
will retire from my right 
(Cic, Rose. Am., 27, 73). 

Quod crebro \_quis~\ videt, 
non miratur, etiam si cur 
flat nescit, what one sees fre- 
quently he does not marvel at, 
even if he does not know its 
cause (Cic, Div., ii., 22, 49). 

Etiam si quid scribas n5n 
habebis, scribito tamen, even 
though you (shall) have no- 
thing to write, nevertheless 
write (Cic, Earn., xvi., 26,2). 

Nam ista Veritas etiam si 
iucunda non est, mihi tamen 
grata est, for that truth, al- 



Neaue enim, si maxime 
statuae deiectae essent, 
eas ego vobls possem iacentes 
ostendere, for even if the sta- 
tues were altogether scattered 
upon the ground, I could not 
show them to you, as they 
lay there (Cic, Verr., ii., 68, 
164). 

Etsi nihil aliud Sullae 
nisi consulatum abstulisse- 
tis, tamen eo content os vos 
esse oportehat, though you 
had taken nothing else from 
Sulla than the consulship, yet 
you ought to be satisfied with 
that (Cic, SuU., 32, 90). 

Sed tametsi iam ita c5n- 
stituisses, ut abesse perpetud 
mdlles quam ea, quae nolles, 
v id ere, tamen id cogitare de- 
beres, but although you had 
already made up your mind to 
stay away forever rather than 
see what you would rather not 
see, yet you ought to bear this 
point in mind (Cic, Fain., iv., 
7,4). 

Etiam si nobilitatum 
non sit, tamen honestum sit, 
quodque vere dicimus, etiam 
si au nullo laudetur, natura 
esse laudabile, even though it 
should not be stamped as noble, 
yet it would be worthy of re- 
spect and a thing which we 
truly call praiseworthy in its 



CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. 



279 



though it is unpleasant, I am nature, even though no one 
yet glad to hear (Cic, Att., iii., should praise it (Cic, Off., i., 
24, 2). 4, 14). 

479. Concessive clauses are also introduced by licet, ut, 
quamvis, and quamquam. Of these : — 

480. (1.) Clauses with licet or ut take the subjunc- 
tive. 

(2.) Clauses with quamquam take the indicative in 
classical Latin, the subjunctive later, while clauses with 
quamvis take the subjunctive in classical Latin and the 
indicative later.* Thus : — 



m 



Indicative. 

I, quamquam iti- 



nere et proelid fessi erant, 
tamen Metello instructi inten- 
iique obviam procedunt, al- 
though the Romans were 
weary with the march and the 
battle, yet they went forth 
against Metellus drawn up in 
good order and on the alert 
(Sail., lug., 53, 5). 

Quamquam in utroque 
vesirum summum esse inge- 
nium studiumque perspexi, 
tamen haec, quae sunt in spe- 
cie posita, in te, Sulpici, di- 
vina sunt, although I have 
seen in both of you very great 
ability and zeal, yet in this 
matter of beauty of style you, 
Sulpicius, are divine (Cic, de 
Or., i., 29, 131). - 



Subjunctive. 

Sed omnia licet concur- 
rant, Idus Martiae conso- 
lantur, but though all [hor- 
rors] should unite against me, 
yet the 15th of March is a 
consolation (Cic, Att., xiv., 
4,2). 

Ut enim neminem alium 
nisi T. Patinam familiaris- 
simum suum rogasset, scire 
potuit, for even though he had 
asked no one but his dear 
friend Titus Patina, he might 
have known (Cic, Mil., 17, 
46). 

Quamquam enim sint f 
in quibusdam malls, tamen 
hoc nomen beati longe et late 
patet, for though they may be 
in some misfortune, yet this 
word " happy " is one of far- 



* In very late Latin licet also is found with the indicative. 

t In this and the few other cases in which Cicero uses the subjunctive in 
a, quamquam clause, the subjunctive is potential, and not influenced by the 
concessive character of the sentence. (Cf. the translation.) 



280 SYNTAX. 

Quamvis est enim om- reaching import (Cic, Tusc, 

nis hyperbole ultra finem, v., 30, 85). 

non tamen esse debet ultra Quamvis sis molestus, 

modum, for although all hy- nunquam te esse confitebor 

perbole means overstepping malum, for although you are 

the line, yet it should not go annoying, I will never admit 

beyond all bounds (Quint., that you are bad (Cic, Tusc., 

viii., 6, 73). ii., 25, 6l). 

Note. The concessive clauses with quamvis and ut are of hortatory 
origin, quamvis meaning 1 "however much," and ut, "how; " licet is really 
an impersonal verb, and the subjunctive was at first a coordinate potential 
subjunctive (cf . 491) ; quamquam introduces regularly something granted 
to be a fact, and therefore naturally has the indicative. 

a. Quamvis, in its earlier meanings " however," " as much as 
you please," etc., is used to modify some particular adjective or 
adverb, and then has no effect upon the mood of the verb. 
Thus : — 

Quasi vero mihi difficile sit, quamvis multos nominatim 
prof err e, just as if it would be hard for me to mention by name 
as many as you please (Cic, Rose. Am., 16, 47) ; doctorum est 
ista consuetudo eaque Graecorum, ut els ponatur de quo dispu- 
tent quamvis subito, it is the professional philosophers, and 
that, too, Greek ones, who have that habit of letting a subject be 
proposed to them for discussion however suddenly (Cic, Am. y 
5, 17). 

So, quamvis licet insectemur Stoicos metuo ne soli philoso- 
phy sint, for though we attack the Stoics as much as you please, 
I fear they are the only real philosophers (Cic, Tusc, iv., 
24, 53). 

b. Quamquam and etsi, often, tametsi, rarely, are used with 
independent sentences to add a sort of correction to what has 
been said, as is done in English by " and yet." Thus : — 

Quamquam quid opus est in hoc philosophari, and yet, 
what need is there of philosophizing on this subject ? (Cic, 
Tusc, i., 37, 89) ; harum duarum condicionum nunc utram 
malis vide ; etsi consilium, quod cepi, rectum esse et tutum 



CLAUSES OF CONCESSION, AND OF COMPARISON. 281 

scio, now see which of these two propositions you prefer ; and 
yet the plan which I have formed I know is sound and safe. 
(Ter., Beaut., 327). 

c. Etsi, quamquam, and quamvis are used rarely in classical 
writers, but very commonly in Tacitus and the later authors 
(like "although" in English), with participles, etsi and quam- 
quam also with adjectives, without any verb. Thus : — 

Qua re omni ratione esse inter diuperrum pendum ; etsi ali- 
quo accepto detrimento, tamen summd exercitus salva 
locum, quern petant, capi posse, [that] therefore on all accounts 
they must break through by daylight, and although some loss 
might be experienced, yet with the main body of the army un- 
hurt, the place they were making for could be taken (Caes., B. C, 
i., 67) ; loricam induit linteam, quamquam haud dissimu- 
lans parum adversus tot mucrones profuturam, he [Galba] put 
on a canvas breastplate, though perfectly well aware that it 
would be of little use against so many sword points (Suet., 
Galba, 19) ; haec, mira quamquam, fidem ex eo trahebant, 
these things, wonderful though they were, induced belief from 
the fact (Tac, An., vi., 30) ; mene non primum cum Pompeio, 
qualicumque cdnsilio suo, deinde cum bonis esse, quamvis 
causa temere instituta, I not be, in the first place, on Pom- 
pey's side whatever his design, and afterwards on the right side, 
although they had not managed their course with discretion ? 
(Cic, Att., ix., 6, 4). 

For Concessive clauses with Relative Pronouns, see 500, 2, b. 
" Cum " 510, 2. 

" Clauses of Proviso with Dum, Modo, etc., " 504. 

Glauses with Particles of Comparison. 

481. (1.) Clauses of comparison take the indicative 
when the comparison is simply stated as a fact. 

(2.) They take the subjunctive when the comparison is 
put as a supposed case. Si is then usually added to the 
particle of comparison ; as, tamquam si, quasi, ut si, velut 
si, etc si. Thus : — 



282 



SYNTAX. 



Indicative. 

Ittud te hort or. at. tam- 
quani poetae boni solent. sic 
til in extrema parte muneris 
tui diligentissimus sis. this I 
urge upon you : just as good 
poets are in the habit of doing, 
so do you exercise especial 
care in the last part of your 
task (Cic. Q. Fr., i., 1, 46). 

Quasi porno, ex arbori- 
bus, cruda si sunt, uix evel- 
luntur. si rn~.t~.ra et cocta. 
decidunt, sic vltam adulescen- 
tibus vis aufert, as fruit when 
unripe is torn with difficulty 
from its tree, but when it is 
fully ripe falls, so force is neces- 
sary to take away life from the 
young (Cic, Sen.) 19. 71). 

Est Ita. ut dicitur. it is as 
it is said to be. 

Haec sicut exposui, ita 
gesta sunt, these things took 
place as I have set forth (Cic, 
Mil., 11. 30). 

Ut sementem feceris. ita, 
metes, as thou so west, so shalt 
thou reap (Cic. de Or., ii.. 65, 
261). 

Longe alia nobis ac tu 
scrlpseras nilntiantur. the 
accounts told me are far other 
than you wrote < Cic. Att., xi.. 
10. 2). 

Pergratuni mini feceris, 
si quemadmodum soles 
de ceteris rebus cum ex te 



Subjunctive. 

Yerura homines corruptl 
superbid ita aetdtem agunt, 
quasi vostros honores con- 
temn ant ; ita hos petunt. 
quasi honest' vixerint. but 
men have become spoiled by 
arrogance and conduct them- 
selves as if they scorned your 
offices, but sue for them as if 
they lived respectable lives 
(Sail.. Tag.. So. 19). 

Qui quasi sua res out 
hands agatur. ita dlligenter 
Sex. Naevi studio et cupiditati 
morem gerunt, who devote 
themselves to accomplishing 
the zealous and eager desires 
of Sextus Naevins with as 
much energy as if their own 
interests or honors were at 
stake (Cic. Qulnc., 2. 9). 

Tantus patres metus de 
surnrna. rerum eejjit. velut si 
iam adportds host is esset, as 
great a fear for the govern- 
ment seized upon the senators 
as if the enemy were already 
at the gates (Liv., xxi.. 16, 2). 

At accusat C. Cornell fi- 
lms, et id aeque ualere debet, 
ac si pater indicaret. but 
the son of Grains Cornelius is 
the accuser, and that ought to 
have as much weight as if the 
father were giving testimony 

(Cic. Sua., is, si). 

Tamquam clausa sit 



CLAUSES OF COMPARISON, AND OF PURPOSE. 283 

quaeritur, sic de amicitia dis- Asia, sic nihil perfertur ad 

putaris quid sentias, I shall nos, we fail to get any news as 

be very much obliged to you if completely as if Asia were 

you tell us what you think blockaded (Cic, Earn., xii., 9). 

about friendship, in the same Ut si bono animo fecis- 

way you are wont to discuss sent laudavit consilium eo- 

other topics, when you are rum, he [Agesilaus] praised 

asked about them (Cic, Am., their scheme, just as if they 

iv., 16). had acted with good inten- 
tions (Nep., Ages., 6, 2). 

a. In subjunctive clauses of comparison, if the supposed com- 
parison applies to the present (or future), the primary tenses 
are used ; if to the past, the secondary tenses. The perfect and 
pluperfect indicate, of course, completed action. Occasionally, 
however, the imperfect is used referring to present time, when 
the comparison involves something impossible or very unnat- 
ural, as in the fourth example above. 

For Comparative Clauses with Quam = " than," see 498, and 516, e. 

Clauses of Purpose (Final Clauses). 

482. The subjunctive of purpose is introduced : — 

(1.) By the conjunctions ut, that, and ne, that not, lest 
(occasionally ut ne). To connect two clauses of purpose 
neve (neu) is used for " and not " as well as "or not " 
"nor." Thus: — 

Esse oportet ut vivas ; non vivere ut edas, you must eat 
in order to live, not live in order to eat (Cornif., Keren., iv., 
28, 39) ; ne qua eius adventus procul signiftcatid fiat, that no 
indication of his arrival may be made at a distance (Caes., B. G., 
vi., 29) ; excitanda est dlligentia, ut ne quid neglegenter 
agamus, we must rouse up our energy so as to do nothing care- 
lessly ; ut vetera exempla relinquam, neve eorum aliquem 
qui vlvunt nominem, to leave examples from old times and 
yet not name any of the living (Cic, Sest., 47, 101). 

(2.) By a relative pronoun or adverb ; as, qui, unde, 
etc. Thus : — 

Ea qui conficeret Gaium Trebonium legatum relinquit, 



284 SYNTAX. 

he leaves his lieutenant Gaius Trebonius to attend to these 
things (Caes., B. G., vii., 11) ; scribebat tamen orationes quas 
alii dlcerent, yet he used to write speeches for others to deliver 
(Cic, Brut., 56, 206) ; homini natura rationem dedit, qua re- 
gerentur animi adpetiius, to man Nature has given reason, to 
govern the desires of the mind (cf. Cic, iV. D., ii., 12, 34) ; 
quasi iam divinarem, id quod accidit, Hid exstincto, fore unde 
discerem neminem, as if I already had a presentiment of what 
proved to be the case, that after his death there would be 
nobody from whom I could learn (for me to learn from) (Cic, 
Sen., 4, 12) ; habebam quo cSnfugerein, I had a refuge to 
flee to (Cic, Fami., iv., 6, 2) ; locum, ubi consistat reperire 
non poterit, he will not be able to find a place in which to 
make a stand (Cic, Quinc., 1, 5). 

Note. Ut represents the purpose in a general way as the purpose of the 
action indicated by the main verb ; the relative connects the purpose par- 
ticularly with some word in the main clause. Thus : — 

Clavem cepit ut idnuam recluderet, he took the key to open the door. 

Clavem cepit qua idnuam recluderet, he took the key to open the door 
with. 

(3.) Especially by quo (in the sense of ut eo), if the 
purpose clause contains a comparative.* Thus : — 

Inrltant ad pugnandum, quo flunt acriores, they goad 
them on to battle, to make them the fiercer (Varr.) ; libertate 
usus est, quo impunius dicax esset, he used his freedom 
to bluster the more safely (Cic, Quinc., 3, 11). 

a. When the clause upon which the purpose clause depends 
stands first, it often contains some word or phrase like ideo, 
idcirco, eo consilio, hoc animo, to prepare the way for the purpose 
clause ; as : — 

Legibus denique idcirco omnes servimus, ut liberi esse 
posslmus, to the laws, in short, we are all slaves, but only on 
this account, namely, to secure the possibility of freedom (Cic, 
Clu., 53, 146) ; eo ad te animo venimus, ut de re publica 

* Quo is very rarely used if there is no comparative, and, on the other 
hand, ut is occasionally used where there is a comparative. 



CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 285 

esset silentiurri) with this purpose we have come to you, that 
we might cease thinking and talking about the government (Cic, 
Brut., 3, 11). 

b. When the purpose belongs to the present (or future) the 
present subjunctive is used ; when it belongs to the past, the 
imperfect is used. The perfect and pluperfect are in the nature 
of the case uncommon, representing a purpose as completed in 
the present or past respectively. 

c. But the clause of purpose sometimes depends upon an idea 
of saying implied, instead of upon the main verb of the sentence 
expressed. Thus : — 

Sed ut hie, qui intervenit, me intuens, ne ignoret, quae 
res agatur, de natura agebamus deorum, but that our friend 
who has just come in — and he glanced at me — may not be in 
the dark as to the subject of our discussion, we were discussing 
the divine nature (Cic, N. D., i., 7, 17). Ne Ignoret indicates the 
purpose of making the remark, not the purpose of the discus- 
sion. 

d. Of similar character is the use of nedum introducing a 
subjunctive clause where we say " not to mention," " still less," 
etc. Thus : — 

Satra/pa si siet amator numquam sujferre eius sumptus 
queat, nedum tu possis, if her lover were a governor he could 
never stand her extravagance, still less can you (Ter., Heaut., 
454). 

Note. Ut, as well as qui,ubY, etc., is in origin a relative, so that all 
these clauses of purpose are really of the same nature. Their develop- 
ment may he illustrated thus : — 

He sends a hoy ; he will or would say, (or) let him say. 

He sends a hoy who will say, (or) who is to say. 

He sends a boy, that he may say, (or) to say. 

The English exhibits the coordinate construction beside the subordinate 
in the expressions " come and see me," " come to see me." 

For other constructions of purpose, see as follows : — 

Gerunds and Gerundives : 551, and 552, 2. 

Future Participle (rare) : 545, a. 

Supine (with verbs of motion) : 554, 2. 

(Poetical) Infinitive : 536. 



286 SYNTAX. 

Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses). 
483. The subjunctive of kesult is introduced : — 
(1.) By ut, that, ut non, that not. Thus : — 

Non is es, Catilina, ut te pudor umquam a turpitiidine 
revocarit, you are not such a person, Catiline, that shame has 
ever kept you from a base deed (cf. Cic, Cat., i., 9, 22) ; multis 
gravibusque volneribus confectus, ut iam se sustinere non 
posset, worn out with many serious wounds, so that now he 
could no longer hold himself up (Caes., B. G,, ii., 25). 

(2.) By a relative pronoun or adverb, qui, etc. 
Thus : — 

Nemo est tarn senex, qui se annum non putet posse vivere, 
no one is so old that he does not think he can live a year (Cic, 
Sen., 7, 24) ; quis tarn fuit Mo tempore ferreus, qui non illo- 
rum aetate, ndbilitate, miserici commoveretur, who was so 
iron-hearted then, that he was not influenced by their age, their 
high birth, and their pitiable condition? (Cic, Verr., v., 46, 12l). 

(3.) Especially by quin (equivalent to the nominatives 
qui, quae, quod, etc., with non'), when the main clause 
contains or implies a negative. Thus : — 

Nidlast tarn facilis res, quin difficilis siet, quom invitus 
facias, nothing is so easy that it is not hard when you do it 
against your will (Ter., Heaut., 805) ; numquam accedo, quin 
abs te abeam doctior, I never come to you without going away 
richer in knowledge. 

a. The clause of result is generally foreshadowed in the main 
clause by some word like ita, sic, tarn, is, talis, tantus, adeo. 
(Cf. the examples.) 

b. When clauses which seem to be result clauses have ne or 
ut ne, it is because the thing said is looked at rather as an 
intended effect (purpose) than as a result (accomplished effect). 
Thus : — 

TJtroque tempore ita me gessi ne tibi pudorl, ne regno tuo, 
ne genti Macedonum essem, on both occasions I so conducted 



CLAUSES OF RESULT. 287 

myself as not to bring discredit upon you or your kingdom, or 
upon the Macedonians as a people [i. e., it was my aim not to, 
etc.] (Liv., xl., 15, 6). 

Note. As in the case of purpose clauses, the relative clause of result 
is an earlier development than the ut clause. This development began as 
an independent apodosis with an implied protasis in some such fashion as 
this : — 

This is a very simple thing : you would easily see it. 

This thing is so simple : it is one which you would easily see. 

This thing is so simple that you would easily see it. 

This thing is so simple that it causes no trouble.* 

Starting thus with the notion of indeterminate futurity inherent in the 
subjunctive, the result clause tends to pass from the supposed case to an 
actual case. In this process the subjunctive loses more and more of its 
modality, and gains correspondingly in definiteness of tense, so that : — 

c. In pure result clauses, unlike the other dependent clauses 
thus far treated, the tenses of the subjunctive seem to acquire 
the same distinctness of temporal quality which the indicative 
has. This is especially true of the perfect subjunctive, as can 
be seen in examples like the following : — 

Expidsus regno tandem aliqnando, Mithridates tantum 
tamen consilid atque auctoritate valuit ut se rege Armenio- 
rum adluncto novis opibus copitsque renovarit, driven at 
last out of his kingdom, Mithridates was still so effective with 
his schemes and influence that he renewed his means and 
troops by winning the king of the Armenians as an ally (Cic, 
Mtlr., 15, 33). 

Note 1. How far the Romans were conscious of a substitution of tense 
force for mood force in such subjunctives it is perhaps impossible to tell. 
It may be that the perfect, through denoting completed action, differs in 
clauses of result from the imperfect in the same way that the English 
expressions "so that he did" and "so as to do" differ. Compare with 
the example just given the following from the same oration : — 

Qui rex, sibi aliquot annis sumptls ad conflrmandds rationes et copids 
belli, tantum spe condtuque valuit, ut se Oceanum cum Fordo coniuncturum 
putaret, and this king, having taken several years to mature his plans 

* Cf . J. B. Greenough's essay on The Latin Subjunctive, pp. 17 ff., and 
W. G. Hale's " Sequence of Tenses in Latin," American Journal of Phi- 
lology, viii., 1, pp. 49 ff. 



288 SYNTAX. 

and strengthen his forces, found himself so powerful, in his hopes and 
ambitions, as to fancy that he was going to spread his sway from the 
Black Sea to the ocean (Cic, Mur., 15. 32). 

In using the imperfect, the writer seems to he thinking more of the fact 
(expressed by the main verb) which produces the result, while the perfect 
calls attention rather to the result itself. 

Xote 2. This difference between the perfect and the imperfect sub- 
junctive can perhaps be more plainly seen by comparing a clause of result 
with a clause of purpose. Thus : — 

Result. Inventus est scriba quid am qui eomicum oculfis conflxerit, 
there was found a certain clerk who bearded the Hon (lit., pierced the 
eyes of the crows) (Cic, Mur., 11,25). 

Purpose. Reperti sunt duo equites Romani qui te ista curd liberarent, 
there were found two Roman knights to free you from that anxiety (Cic, 
Cat, i., 4, 9). 

The purpose is something looked forward to in the indefinite future, 
and therefore has no reference to a particular time other than the time of 
the main verb ; the result is something which has occurred at a definite 
past time, and therefore, besides its reference to its main verb, involves, 
like the indicative, a reference also to the time the thing is said.* 

Substantive Glauses with Ut, Ne, Quin, Quota inns- 

484. After the analogy of final and consecutive 
clauses, subjunctive clauses introduced by ut (and ut 
noil), ne (n&ve or ?ieu, and lit ne), quln, and quominus, 
were used as the subject or object of a variety of verbs, 
or in apposition to some word governed by theni. 

485. Clauses analogous to final clauses are thus used 
depending upon several classes of verbs which denote an 
action directed to the future. Such clauses are called 

SUBSTANTIVE or OBJECT CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. TllUS : — 

486. With verbs meaning to wish, ask, beseech, de- 

MAND, DETERMINE, DECREE, ALLOW, etc. ; as : — 

Phaethon optavit ut in currum pcutris tolleretur. Phae- 
thon wanted to be taken up into his father's chariot (Cic, Off., 

* This difference exists, of course, in the nature of the case itself, and 
not in the form of the expression. In English we mark the difference by 
the mood of the verb ; the Romans failed to do so, but it does not follow 

that thev did not feel the difference. 



SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 289 

iii., 25, 94) ; Verves rogat et orat Dolabellam, ut ad Nero- 
nem profLciscatur, Verres asks and begs Dolabella to visit Nero 
(Cic, Verr.j i., 29, 72) ; milites poseunt pugnam, postulant, 
ut signum daretur, the soldiers call for battle, and de- 
mand that the signal be given (Liv., ii., 45, 6) ; Galll sta- 
tuunt, ut decern milia hominum in oppidum mittantur, the 
Gauls determine that ten thousand men be sent into the town 
(Caes., B. G., vii., 21) ; decrevit sendtus, ut L. Opimius vi- 
deret, ne quid res publico, detrimenti caperet, the senate de- 
creed that Lucius Opimius should see to it that the state suffered 
no harm (Cic, Cat., i., 2, 4) ; consull permissum est, ut duds 
legiones scriberet novas, the consul was authorized to enroll 
two new legions (Liv., xxxv., 20, 4). 

487. With verbs meaning to propose, advise, warn, 

URGE, PERSUADE, DIRECT, COMMAND, COMPEL, etc. ; as : 

\_Nescis~] te autem ipsum ad populum tulisse, ut qulntus 
praetered dies Caesari tribueretur, and have you forgotten 
that you yourself proposed to the people that a fifth day be- 
sides should be assigned to Caesar ? (Cic, JPhil., ii., 43, 110) ; 
posted me, ut sibi essem legatus, non solum suasit, verum 
etiam rogavit, afterwards he not only advised, but even re- 
quested me to be his lieutenant (Cic, Prov. Cons., 17, 42) ; 
monet, ut in reliquum tempus omnes susplclones vitet, he 
warns him, for the future, to avoid all suspicious conduct (Caes., 
B. G., i., 20) ; Caninius noster me tuls verbis admonuit, ut 
scriberem ad te, our friend Caninius has suggested to me on 
your behalf that I write to you (Cic, Fam., ix., 6, l) ; Caesar 
milites cohortatus est, utl suae pristinae virtutis memoriam 
retinerent lieu perturbarentur animo, Caesar urged the 
soldiers to hold fast to the remembrance of their old-time valor, 
and not to be troubled in their minds ; huic mdgnis praemiis 
pollicitationibusque persuadet, uti ad hostes transeat, he 
persuades this man by promise of great rewards to cross over to 
the enemy's lines (Caes., B. G., iii., 18) ; servis imperat, ut 
se ipsum neglegant, flliam defendant, he orders his slaves 
not to pay any attention to him, but to protect his daughter 



290 SYNTAX. 

(Cic, Verr., i., 26, 67) ; tenemus enim memoria Q. Catulum 
esse coactum, ut vita se ipse privaret, for we remember 
that Quintus Catulus was forced to take his own life (Cic, de 
Or., iii., 3, 9). 

488. Substantive clauses of purpose are further used 
with verbs meaning to attend to, look out for, strive, 
try, etc. ; as : — 

Curd ut valeas, see that you keep well (Cic, Fam., vii., 5, 
3) ; videamus, ut, quidquid accident, fortiter feramus, let 
us see to it that we bear bravely whatever happens ; qui sta- 
dium currit, eniti debet, ut vinoat, he who runs a race 
ought to try his best to win (Cic, Off., iii., 10, 42). 

489. Many of these verbs are also used with an infini- 
tive clause. Thus : — 

(1.) Void, nolo, maid, cupio, studed, always ; statud, con- 
stitud, decernd, generally, take an infinitive (not a subjunctive 
clause) when there is no change of subject. Thus : — 

Si accelerare volent, ad vesperam consequentur, if they 
are willing to hurry they will overtake him by evening (Cic, 
Cat., ii., 4, 6) ; simul illdrum calamitdtem commemorando 
augere nolo, at the same time I do not wish to increase the 
misfortune of these people by dwelling upon it (Cic. Ver. Ac.'i., 
14) ; incommoda sua nostris comrnittere legibus et iudicils 
quam dolorl suo permittere maluerunt, they preferred to 
leave their injuries to the protection of our laws and courts rather 
than base action upon their own distress (Cic, Verr., i., 32, 82) ; 
statuerunt id secum in Syriam reportare, they determined 
to take that back with them to Syria (Cic, Verr., iv., 28, 64). 

(2.) Void, nolo, maid, cupio, have often also the infinitive 
even when the subject changes. Thus : — 

An omnls tu istos vincere volebas, qui nunc tu ut vin- 
cas tantd opere labdrant, or did you want to have all these gen- 
tlemen win who are now struggling so hard to have you win ? 
(Cic, Quinct., 21, 69) ; tu Syracusanos diem festum Mar- 
cellis impertire noluisti, you were unwilling to have the 
people of Syracuse celebrate a holiday in honor of the Marcelli 



SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 291 

(Cic, Verr., ii., 21, 5l) ; rem talem per alios citius quam per 
se tardlus conficl malebat, he preferred to have a matter of 
this kind carried out quickly by others rather than slowly by 
himself (Cic, Sest., 32, 70). 

(3.) Sino always (except in the imperative), and patior gen- 
erally, take the infinitive. 

(4.) lubeo and veto regularly take the infinitive ; so also im- 
pero and postulo when the verb dependent upon them is passive 
or deponent ; as : — 

Caesar quinque cohortes de media node proflcisci impe- 
rat, Caesar orders five cohorts to set out about midnight. 

490. Several of these verbs take the subjunctive if 
they imply a command or request, the infinitive if they 
merely introduce a statement. Thus : — 

(1.) Persuaded, moneo, concedo, etc., with the subjunctive, 
mean " persuade, warn, allow one to do a thing ; " with the in- 
finitive, " persuade, warn, grant one that a thing is so and so." 

(2.) Words like dicer e, scribere, respondere, nuntiare, with 
the subjunctive, mean " tell, write, etc., one to do so and so ; " 
as : — 

Dicam tuls, ut librum meum describant ad teque mit- 
tant, I will tell your people to make a copy of my book, and 
send it to you (Cic, Fain., xii., 17, 2). 

491. Sometimes the subjunctive has no introductory 
ut. Thus : — 

Visne igitur hoe primum videamus, do you wish then that 
we should look at this point first ? malo te sapiens hostis me- 
tuat, quam stulti ewes laudent, I would rather have you feared 
by a wise enemy than praised by foolish fellow-countrymen ; a te 
peto, me absentem defendas, I beg of you to defend me in 
my absence ; Caesar Commio imperat quas possit adeat 
civitates, Caesar orders Commius to visit such states as he can ; 
lianc si qui partem putabit esse orationis, sequatur licebit, 
if any one thinks this is a part of oratory, he may follow [Her- 
magoras] (Cic, Inven., i., 51, 97). 



292 SYNTAX. 

So with velim, vellem, malim, etc., used as a circumlocution 
to express a wish. (See 473, c.) 

Note. It is incorrect to say that in these cases an ut is omitted. They 
are survivals of the old coordinate construction before the ut construction 
was developed, and the apparently dependent subjunctive is really an inde- 
pendent hortatory or potential subjunctive. 

492. After verbs and expressions which denote fear, 
anxiety, etc., the subjunctive with ne expresses a fear 
that something will or may happen ; with ne non (or ut), 
a fear that something will or may not happen (see note 
below r ). Thus: — 

Vereor, ne, dum minuere velim labdrem, augeam, I am 
afraid that, while wishing to lessen the labor, I shall increase 
it (Cic, Leg., i., 4, 12) ; vldit periculum esse, ne exiltum 
impedimentls exercitum neqiiiauam incolumem traduxisset, 
he saw there was danger of his having taken the army safely 
across to no purpose if stripped of its baggage (Liv., ix., 18) ; 
non quo verear, ne tua virtus ojAnidnl hominum non re- 
spondeat, not that I am afraid that your merits will not fulfill 
men's expectations (Cic, Fain., ii., 5, 2) ; veremur, ne forte 
non alidrum utilitatibus sed propriae laiidi servisse videa- 
mur, I am afraid that I may, perhaps, seem to have been work- 
ing not for the interests of others, but for my own glory ; rem 
frumentariain, ut satis commode supportari posset, tim ere 
[se] dicebant, they said they were afraid that provisions could 
not be conveyed comfortably and conveniently (Caes., B. G., i., 
39). 

a. Ut, rather than ne non, is used by the comic poets, espe- 
cially with timed, metuo, and paved, and by Pacuvius and Ter- 
ence with vereor. Cicero also prefers ut after vereor and timed, 
and Caesar uses it after timed, as in the last example. Ne non 
is rare in the comic writers, and disappears wholly after Cice- 
ro's time. 

b. Vereor, and less commonly other verbs of fearing, when 
they mean " afraid to do," take an infinitive ; as : — 

Ah ! vereor coram in ds te laudare amplius, oh, I am 



SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 293 

afraid to praise you any more thus to your face (Ter., Ad., 
269). 

c. The verb of fearing or caution is sometimes omitted in 
lively address or conversation, the subjunctive clause thus stand- 
ing alone ; as : — 

Ne nimium modi? . . . tuos iste animus aequos subvortat, 
only [take care] lest that easy-going disposition of yours upset 
us too completely (Ter., Ad., 835). 

Note. Clauses of fearing- are really developments from the hortatory 
or the optative use of the subjunctive, and this origin explains the apparent 
contradiction in the use of ut to express " that not." Thus : — 

metuo ; ne id flat ! = metud ne id fiat. 
I am afraid ; < [it not happen ' ' I am afraid it will happen. 



may 



metuo ; ne id nonfiat! = metuo ne id nonfiat. 
metuo; ut id fiat! " metuo ut id fiat. 



_ . . ( let ) ( it not fail to happen ) " I am afraid it will not 
1 am afraid ; i ( 1 • . i ( ^ 

( may ) ( it happen ) happen. 

493. Substantive clauses of purpose often passing into 
result are used : — 

(1.) With ne (ut ne} or without a particle, after words 
meaning to guard against ovfoi*bid. Thus : — 

Cavendum est, ne extra modum prodeas, you must 
guard against overstepping the limit (Cic, Off., i., 39, 140) ; 
neque enim est interdictum aut a rerum natura aut a 
lege aliqua atque more, ut singulis hominibus ne amplius 
quam singulas artes nosse liceat, for neither by the constitu- 
tion of the universe, nor by any statute or convention, is it for- 
bidden that one man shall know more than one subject (Cic, 
de Or., i., 50, 215). 

a. Cavere means properly " look out for," " provide for." 
Therefore with ne it means " to guard against ; " and with ut 
" to take care that." Cave without a particle is used as a cir- 
cumlocution for forbidding. Thus : — 

Cave festines, do not hasten ; cave /axis, don't do it. 

(2.) With ne or quominus (sometimes also quin, if the 



294 SYNTAX. 

main clause contains or implies a negative), after verbs 
meaning to oppose, refuse, hinder, etc. Thus : — 

Plura ne scrlbam, dolore impedior, I am prevented by 
grief from writing more ; Atticus, ne qua sibi stcutua ponere- 
tur, restitit, Atticus opposed having a statue set up to him 
anywhere ; elsdem de causes . . . quominus dlmicare vellet, 
movebatur, by the same reasons he was influenced against 
wishing to fight (Caes., B. C, i., 82) ; Epaminondas non recu- 
savit quominus leg is poenam subiret, Epaminondas did not 
refuse to suffer the penalty of the law (Nep., Epam., viii., 2) ; 
Kegulus sententiam ne diceret recusavit, Regulus refused to 
give an opinion (Cic, Off., iii., 27, 100) ; non possumus, quin 
alii a nobis dissentiant recusare, we cannot object to others 
disagreeing with us (Cic, Acad., ii., 3, 7). 

a. Recusare in affirmative clauses always takes ne after it ; 
in "negative clauses it may be followed by quin, quominus, or 
the infinitive. 

Ulud recusavit, ne id a se fieri postularent, quod adver- 
sus ius hospitl esset, he would not let them demand that a thing 
should be done by him which was against the law of hospitality 
(Nep., xxiii., 12, 3) ; non recusabo, quominus omnes mea 
legant, I will not object to everybody reading my words (Cic, 
Fin., i., 3, 7) ; f rater mens ad omnia perlcula prlnceps esse 
non recusabat, my brother has no reluctance to taking the 
lead in facing all dangers. 

b. Impedlre and deterrere sometimes, and prohibere more 
commonly, take the infinitive. Thus : — 

Caesar Ignes in castrls fieri prohibuit, Caesar forbade fires 
being made in the camp (Caes., B. C, iii., 30, 5) ; quid est, 
quod me impediat ea, quae mihi probabilia videantur sequi, 
what is there to hinder me from adopting the views which seem 
to me probable? (Cic, Off., ii. 2, 8). 

494. Substantive clauses after the analogy of clauses 
or result are chiefly used : — 

a. With impersonal verbs like fit, aceidit, contingit, evenit, 



SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF RESULT. 295 

est, as a circumlocution to express the occurrence or existence 
of something. Thus : — 

Accidit ut una node omnes hermae Atheriis deicerentur, 
it came to pass that in one night all the " hermae " * at Athens 
were thrown down ; persaepe evenit, ut utilitas cum honestate 
certet, it is often the case that what is expedient is at variance 
with what is right (Cic, Part. Or., 25, 89) ; quando fuit ut 
quod licet non liceret, when was it true that the lawful was 
not lawful ? 

495. After certain kinds of verbs the substantive 
clause has a final or a consecutive character, according as 
the given case is regarded as something intended or as 
something accomplished or in process of accomplishment. 
Thus : — 

496. With verbs meaning to cause, accomplish, ob- 
tain, etc. ; as : — 

Hamilcar effecit ut imperator in Hispaniam mitteretur, 
Hamilcar brought it about that he should be sent into Spain as 
commander (0000,00,00). (Final.) 

Impetrabis a Caesare, ut tibi abesse liceat, you will get 
from Caesar permission to be away (Cic, Att., ix., 2, A 1). 
(Consecutive.) 

Commeatus ab Hemis reliquisque clvitatibus ut sine peri- 
culo ad eum portari possent, efnciebat, [this thing] made it 
possible for supplies to be brought to him from the Remi and 
the other states without danger (Caes., B. G., ii., 5). (Final.) 

497. So with impersonal verbs like efficitur, seqidtur,f 
restat, relinquitur, and expressions like proximum est, 
7nos est, ius est. Thus : — 

Restat, ut de imperatore ad id helium deligendo . . . dicen- 
dum esse videatur, it seems necessary for me in conclusion to 

* That is, images of Hermes with only the upper half of the hody de- 
lineated, the lower half being* simply squared off into a column of support. 

t Efficitur and sequitur may also take an infinitive ; as : ex quo Mud 
efficitur, qui bene cenent, omnes libenter cenare, thence follows that all 
who dine well enjoy dining-. 



296 SYNTAX. 

speak about the choice of a commander for this war (Cic, Leg. 
Man., 10, 27). (Consecutive.) 

Proximum est, ut doceam deorum provident id mundum 
administrari, the next thing is for me to show that the universe is 
managed by divine providence (Cic, N. D., ii., 29, 73). (Fetal.) 

Ariovistus respondit ius esse belli, ut qui vicissent els quos 
vicissent quemadmodiun vellent imperarent, Ariovistus an- 
swered that it was the right of war for the conqueror to lay such 
commands upon the vanquished as he wishes (Caes., B. G., i., 
36). (Fetal.) 

498. So after comparatives with quam, with or without 
ut, the subjunctive has sometimes a fined, sometimes a 
consecutive, nature. Thus : — 

Isocrates maiore milii ingenio videtur esse quam ut cum 
Lysia comparetur, Isocrates seems to me to have too great 
ability to be compared with Lysias. (Fetal.) 

Qui perpessus est omnia potius quam conscios delendae 
iyrannidis indicaret, who suffered everything rather than dis- 
close the accomplices of the plot to overthrow the tyranny (Cic, 
Tusc, ii., 22, 52). (Consecutive.) 

499. To the foregoing clauses may be added the clauses 
with quln, depending on a clause which contains or implies 
negation. Thus : — 

Nemo fuit mllitum quln volneraretur. there was no one 
of the soldiers but was wounded. (Consecutive.) 

Quis est, quln cernat. quanta vis sit in sensibvs, who does 
not see how much power there is in the senses ? (Consecutive.) 

Aegre sunt retentl mllites quln oppidum irrumperent, 
the soldiers were with difficulty restrained from bursting into the 
town (Caes., B. C, ii., 13). (Consecutive.) 

Cicero nihil praetermlsit, quln Pompeiiim a Caesar is con- 
iunctione avocaret. Cicero neglected no means of trying to get 
Pompey away from alliance with Caesar. (Final.) 

Note. It will "be seen that in the first two examples quin retains more 
of its original force as a relative, and in the last two has become more 
thoroughly a conjunction. 



SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 297 

a. Clauses with quin are especially common after non possum, 
facere non possum, non dubltd, non dubium est, etc. Thus : — 

Facer e non possum quin cotfidie ad te mitt am Utter as, I 
cannot help sending you a letter every day. (Final.) 

Qiils dubit6t. quin in virtute divitiae sint, who can doubt 
that there are riches in virtue ? (Consecutive.) 

Non vklebdtur esse dubium, quin Caesar venturus esset, 
there seemed to be no doubt that Caesar would come. (Conse- 
cutive.) 

b. In the meaning " I do not hesitate to do," non dubito 
may also take an infinitive in classical Latin, though rarely after 
the forms of expression non est dubitandum, and noil dubitdre. 
Thus: — 

Pro patrid quis bonus dubitet mortem oppetere, what 
good man would hesitate to meet death for his country ? nolite 
dubitare quin Pompeio ilni creddtis omnia, do not be reluc- 
tant to trust everything to Pompey alone. 

Note. Nepos, Livy, and the later writers also use the infinitive some- 
times after non dubito in the meaning " I do not doubt that." 

c. Tantum abest takes after it two clauses with lit, one a 
pure result clause, the other a substantive clause. Thus : — 

Tantum abest ut scribi contra nos nolimus, ut id etiam 
maxime optemus, so far am I from being unwilling to have 
men write against me, that that is what I particularly desire 
(Cic, Tusc, ii., 2, 4). 

d. When clauses introduced by ut, quin, etc., contain the 
apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact, and depend on a 
secondary tense, the circumlocution facturus (etc.) fuerit is 
generally used instead of a pluperfect subjunctive. Thus : — 

Adeo inopid est coactus Hannibal, ut, nisi cum fugae 
specie abeundum timuisset, Galliam repetiturus fuerit, 
Hannibal was driven by want to such a pass that if he had not 
been afraid of seeming to run away if he withdrew, he would 
have gone back to Gaul (Liv., xxii., 32, 3). 

e. Sometimes the perfect subjunctive of a word like posse, 
debere, etc., or a gerundive, is used in the same way. Thus : — 



298 SYNTAX. 

Hand dubium fuit quin, nisi ea mora intervenisset, cas- 
tra eo die capi potuerint, there was no doubt that, if this 
delay had not occurred, the camp could have been taken on that 
day ; adeo acquis viribus gesta res est, ut. s! adfuissent 
Etruscl. accipienda clddes fuerit, the engagement took place 
with forces so nearly equal that if the Etruscans had been there 
a disaster must have befallen us. 

Cf. 517. below. 

Xote. The above treatment of subjunctive substantive clauses is in- 
tended to classify as conveniently as may be the kinds of verbs after which 
such clauses are most common. Various other verbs sometimes express 
ideas to which the same sort of notion may be attached, and can then of 
course take such a substantive clause. Thus : — 

Ad Appl Claud! senectvtem accedebat etiam ut caecus esset, to the 
old ag'e of Appius Claudius was added blindness also (Cic, Sen., 6, 16) ; 
quam palmam utinam di immortelles, Sclpio, tibi reservent, ut avi reliquids 
persequare, this giory of finishing your grandfather's work I pray that 
the immortal g'ods may keep for you. Scipio (Cic, Sen., 6, 19). 

For other kinds of substantive clauses, see 540. and as follows : — 

Clauses with Quod. 540. 4. 

Infinitive Clauses. 515 ff., and 533 ff. 

Indirect Questions, 518. 

Relative Clausss (other than those of Purpose or Result). 

500. (1.) Relative clauses take the indicative when 
they state (or deny) a fact in regard to the antecedent. 
Such clauses may also imply a cause, result, concession, 
etc., or be equivalent to a condition, but the fact is always 
the prominent thing. 

(2.) Relative clauses take the subjunctive when they 
indicate a quality or characteristic of the antecedent 
conceived (a) as making the statement of the main clause 
applicable; (5) as a cause or hindrance of that statement; 
(c) as a special restriction or a condition of its applica- 
tion ; (rZ) as producing a given result. 

Xote. This use of the subjunctive is often called the srE-jexcTrvE of 
characteristic, especially when a result is involved in it (class d). The 
antecedent is frequently a word like is. talis, tantus, nemo. 



RELATIVE CLAUSES. 



299 



501. The following examples will make these uses and 
distinctions clearer. 



Subjunctive. 

Innocentia est aclfectio talis 
animi, quae noceat nemint, 
harmlessness is that sort of 
mental disposition which harms 
nobody (Cic, Tusc, iii., 8, 16). 

(b.) 

fortunate adulescens. qui 
tuae virtutis Homerum prae- 
conem inveneris, O happy 
youth, in that you found in 
Homer the herald of your valor 
(Cic, Arch., 10, 24). 

Egomet, qui sero ac levi- 
ter Graecas litteras attigis- 
sem, tamen complures Athe- 
riis dies sum commoratus, I, 
though I had dabbled in Greek 
literature late and but slightly, 
yet tarried several days at Ath- 
ens (cf.Cic, de Or., i., 18, 82). 
(c.) 

Epicurus se unus, quod 
sciam, sapientem profiteri est 
ausus, Epicurus alone, so far as 
I know, ventured to proclaim 
himself a wise man (Cic, Fin., 
ii., 3, 7). 

Omnium quidem oratorum, 

* The difference between the two moods in relative clauses often cannot 
be shown by an English translation without greatly changing the form of 
the expression, but a more or less literal translation will perhaps aid the 
pupil in understanding the use of the moods, by clearing from his path any 
difficulties arising from the meanings of the Latin words. 



Indicative. 

Virtus est una altissimis 
defixa radlcibus, quae num- 
quam vi ulla labefactari po- 
test, virtue is the one thing 
which, fixed upon the deepest 
roots, can never be shaken by 
any force # (Cic,P7w/.,iv.,5,l3). 

Fortunatus illius exitus qui 
ea non vidit, cum fierent, 
quae prouldlt futura, happy 
his end, for he saw not when 
they came the things which he 
foresaw were coming (Cic, 
Brut., 96, 329). 

Curat Chrysogonus, ut eius 
bona veneant statim, qui non 
norat hominem aut rem, Chry- 
sogonus took care to have his 
effects at once sold, though he 
did not know either the man 
or the case (Cic, Rose. Am., 
37, 105). 

Quia me meamque rem, 
quod in te uno fuit, delace- 
ravisti, because, so far as was 
in your individual power, you 
have ruined me and my inter- 
ests (Plaut., Capt., 666). 

Catonem vero quis nostro- 



300 



SYNTAX. 



rum oratorum, qui quidem 
nunc sunt, legit ? but who of 
of our orators — of the present 
age at least — reads Cato ? 
(Cic, Brut, 17, 65). 

Quis Ignorat, qui modo 
umquam mediocriter res istas 
scire curavit, quln tria Grae- 
covum genera sint ? who does 
not know, provided he has ever 
taken moderate pains to under- 
stand this subject, that there 
are three races of Greeks ? 
(Cic, Flacc., 27, 64). 

Quisquis hue veil erit, va- 
puldbit, whoever comes here 
will get a beating (Plaut., 
Amph., 153). 

Virtutem qui adeptus erit, 
ubicumque erit gentium, a 
nobis dlligetur, the man who 
acquires virtue will be esteemed 
by us wherever he shall be 
(Cic, N. D., I, 44, 121). 

Maximum ornamentum 
amlcitiae tollit, qui ex ed 
tollit verecundiam, he takes 
away the greatest adornment 
of friendship, who takes away 
respect from it (Cic, Am., 22, 
83). 

Quicquam bonum est, quod 
rion eum qui id possidet, meli- 
orem f acit ? is there any good 
thing which does not make 
him who possesses it better ? 
Cic, Par., i., 3, 14). 



quos quidem ego cognove- 
rim, acutissimum iudico Q. 
Sertorium, of all orators — 
those at least whom I know — 
I judge Quintus Sertorius to 
be the sharpest (Cic, Brut., 
48, 180). 

/Servos est nemo, qui modo 
tolerabill condicione sit servi- 
tutis, qui non auddciam clvi- 
um perhorrescat, there is not 
a slave, provided he is in an 
endurable state of slavery, who 
does not shudder at the reck- 
lessness of citizens (Cic, Cat., 
iv., 8, 16). 

Quaecumque causa vos 
hue attulisset, laetarer, I 
should be glad, whatever rea- 
son had brought you here (Cic, 
de Dr., ii., 4, 15). 

Philosophia, cui qui pa- 
reat, omne tempus aetatis sine 
molestia possit degere, philoso- 
phy, whose obedient disciples 
can pass all the periods of life 
without annoyance (Cic, Sen., 
1,2). 

(d.) 

Quis tarn fait illo tempore 
ferreus, qui non illorum aetd- 
te, nobilitdte, miseria commo- 
veretur ? who was there then 
so hard hearted as not to be 
influenced by the age and rank 
and misfortunes of these peo- 
ple ? (Cic, Verr., v., 46, 121). 



RELATIVE CLAUSES. 301 

a. The subjunctive of characteristic is especially common 
after general expressions of existence or non-existence. When 
such expressions are followed by an indicative relative clause 
they usually contain some word like multi, quidam, etc., which 
to a certain extent specializes them. (Cf. 500, note.) 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Sunt autem multi, . . . qui Sunt qui discessum animi 

eripiunt * alas quod aliis a corpore putent esse mor- 

largiantur, but there are many tern, there are [philosophers] 

who take away from one to who think that death is the 

give to another (Cic, Off., i., departure of the soul from the 

14, 43). body (Cic, Tusc, i., 9, 18). 

b. The distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive 
is perhaps most easy to see in the clauses which are equivalent 
to the protases of conditions, as in the last examples under class 
(c) above ; although here, too, the distinction is a very subtle 
one. Qui adeptus exit is the man who as a fact shall have got, 
qui pareat, the man who in any given case should obey. With 
the general relatives quisquis, quicumque, etc., the indicative is 
much more common than the subjunctive. 

c. Short relative clauses merely defining an individual, and 
thus practically equivalent to a descriptive adjective, are apt to 
take the indicative where a characteristic subjunctive might be 
expected. f Thus : — 

Haec est, inquam, societas, in qua omnia Insunt, quae pu- 
tant homines expetenda, this is an association, I say, in which 
are contained all the things which men think worth aiming at 
(Cic, Am., 22, 84). 

* The/art quality still comes out sharply in these cases, and thus dis- 
tinguishes them from the subjunctive clauses. 

t The pupil should perhaps be cautioned that the indicative here has not 
any more than elsewhere the same shade of meaning which a subjunctive 
would have. It is only that the point of view of the writer is slightly 
different according to the mood he chooses in any given ease. 



302 SYNTAX. 

Glauses with the Temporal Particles Dum, Donee, Quoad. 
502. Dum, donee, quoad, meaning " so long as," * or 
" while," f almost always take the indicative in classical 
Latin. 

Note. They thus simply mark the fact that one action is coextensive 
with, or happens during 1 , another. 

Examples are : 

Ut aegroto, dum anima est, spes esse dicitur, sic ego, 
quoad Pompeius in Italia fuit, sperare non destiti, as a sick 
man, so long as the breath of life remains, is said to have hope, 
so I did not cease to hope as long as Pompey was in Italy (Cic, 
Att., ix., 10, 3) ; dum ego in Sicilia sum, nulla statua de- 
iectoi est, while I was in Sicily not a statue was thrown down 
(Cic, Verr., ii., 66, 161) ; tuas epistulas cum lego, minus mihi 
turpis videor, sed tarn diu, dum legd, when I read your letters 
I fancy myself less base, but only so long as I am reading (Cic, 
Att., ix., 6, 5) ; dum in Asia helium geritur, ne in Aetolia 
quidem quietae res fuerant, while the war was going on in 
Asia, affairs had been in unrest even in Aetolia (Liv., xxxviii., 
1,1); neque enim, dum eram voblscum, animum meum vide- 
batis, for while I was with you, you did not see my soul (Cic, 
Sen., 22, 79) ; dum haec Vets agebantur, interim arx Romae 
Capitoliumque in ingentl periculo fuit, in the interval while 
these things were going on at Vei, the Citadel and Capitol at 
Rome came into great danger (Liv., v., 47, l) ; dum Latlnae 
loquentur Utter ae, quercus hide loco non deerit, as long as 
Latin literature shall [live and] speak, this place will not lack an 
oak-tree (Cic, Legg., i., 1, 2) ; hoc feci, dum licuit, intermlsi, 
quoad non licuit, this I did as long as it was allowable, and 
refrained from as long as it was not allowable (Cic, Phil., iii., 
13, 33). 

* I. e., definitely marking 1 duration of time. 

t I.e., either indefinitely marking duration or denoting a certain point in 
a given time. 



CLAUSES WITH DUM, DON EC, QUOAD. 303 

Donee gratus eram tibi, 
Persarum vigui rege beatior. 

More blest than Persia's king I throve, 
What time thou heldst me dear. 

(Hor., Carm., iii., 9, 1 ff.) 

a. Dum has a preference for the present tense. (Cf. 468.) 

b. Donee is not used in Cicero in these meanings, nor in 
Caesar and Sallust at all. 

c. Sometimes a causal notion is implied in the clause with 
dum. Thus : — 

Ita dum pauca mancipia retinere volt, fortunas omries 
perdidit, thus, in consequence of wishing to hold on to a few 
slaves, she lost all her property (Cic, Caec., 17, 56) ; in has 
cladts incidimus, dum metui quam carl esse et diligi malui- 
mus, these are the disasters we have fallen into in consequence 
of having preferred to be feared rather than to be dear and be- 
loved (Cic, Off., ii., 8, 29). 

d. The subjunctive with dum, donee, quoad, in the meanings 
" while," " so long as," is very rare in classical Latin, but occurs 
several times in Livy, and becomes more common later. The 
subjunctive here seems to mark the character of the time rather 
than the fact of the occurrence, and thus to differ from the indi- 
cative just as the relative clauses of characteristic do. Thus : — 

Isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit rie requiras, use that 
blessing while it is there, but when it is gone do not pine for it 
(Cic, Sen., 10, 33) ; nihil deinde moratus, rex quattuor milia 
armatorum, dum recens terror esset, Scotussam misit, then 
with no delay the king sent four thousand armed men to Sco- 
tussa while the panic was fresh (Liv., xxxvi., 9, 13) ; nihil sane 
trepidabant \elephanti~\, d5nec continentl velut ponte age- 
rentur, the elephants displayed no excitement as long as they 
were driven along what seemed to be a continuous bridge (Liv., 
xxi., 28, 10).* 

* These cases are sometimes, but it seems to me less satisfactorily, 
explained otherwise : dum adsit, as attraction (see 523), dum esset, as 
implied indirect discourse (see 522), donee agerentur, as a general con- 
dition (see 477, d, 2). 



304 



SYNTAX. 



503. With dum, donee, quoad, meaning " until," the 
indicative simply chronicles the fact, the subjunctive im- 
plies a purpose. Thus : — 

Indicative. 

Mihi quidem 'Usque cUrae 
erit, quid agds, dum, quid 
egeris, sciero, I certainly shall 
be constantly anxious as to how 
you are until I know how you 
have been (Cic, Fam., xii., 
19,_3). 

Usque eo timui, donee ad 
reiciundos indices venimus, 
I was afraid up to the time 
when we came to rejecting 
jurymen (Cic, Verr., i., 6, 17). 

Tamen non faciam finem 
rogandi, quoad nobis nun- 
tiatum erit te id fecisse, yet 
I shall not stop asking until 
word is brought me that you 
have done the thing (Cic, Att., 



xvi., 16, 16). 



Subjunctive. 

Dum reliquae naves eo 
convenirent, ad lioram rio- 
nam in ancoris exspectavit , 
he waited at anchor till the 
ninth hour for the rest of the 
ships to assemble there (Caes., 
B. G., iv., 23). 

Rogandi orandlque sunt, ut 
. . . differant in tempus 
aliud, dum defervescat Ira, 
they must be asked and begged 
to postpone [their vengeance] 
till another time, namely, till 
their wrath cools down (Cic, 
Tusc., iv., 36, 78). 

Exspecta, amabo te, dum 
Attieum conveniam, wait, 
please, till I meet Atticus (Cic, 
Att., vii., 1, 4). 



a. Donee and quoad are very rare with the subjunctive in this 
sense. 

b. The imperfect and pluperfect indicative do not occur with 
dum, meaning " until," and in the subjunctive only the tenses 
for incomplete action (present and imperfect) are found. 



Clauses of Proviso. 
504. Dum, modo, and dummodo, indicating a proviso 
(" if only," " provided that "), take the subjunctive. 
The negative particle is ne. Thus : — 

Oderiyit, dum metuant, let them hate if only they fear 
(Suet., Cat., 30) ; dum res raaneant, verba fingant arbi- 
tratu sud, provided the things are left, let them fashion words 



CLAUSES WITH ANTEQUAM AND PRIUSQUAM. 305 

at their own sweet will (Cic., Fin., v., 29, 89) ; manent ingenia 
senibus, modo permaneat studium et indu stria, the mental 
faculties of the old do not become impaired provided their 
interest and energy hold out (Cic, Sen., 7, 22) ; celeriter ad 
comitia veniendum censed, dummodo ne haee ambitiosa 
festinatio aliquid immirmat eius gloriae, I think we ought 
to come quickly to the election, provided that such haste 
prompted by ambition should not detract somewhat from his 
glory (Cic, Fam., x., 25, 2) ; omnia postposui, dummodo 
praeceptis patris parerem, I put everything off, provided I 
obeyed my father's instructions (Cic. fll. apud Cic, Fam., xvi., 
21, 6). 

Note. The proviso with modo and dummodo was originally a hortatory 
subjunctive ; with dum it developed from the temporal use. Cases like 
the first example under 502, d (utdre, dum adsit), are the connecting' link 
between the indicative temporal clause and the proviso. In these provi- 
sional clauses the subjunctive retains its indefinite future force, the present 
applying to a present, the imperfect to a past, situation. 

Clauses with Antequam and Priusquam. 

505. With antequam or priusquam, " before," the in- 
dicative simply states (or denies) as a fact the priority 
of the thing said in the main clause to that said in the 
temporal clause ; the subjunctive marks a further relation 
between the two clauses. Thus : — 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Antequam pro L. Mure- Is videlicet antequam ve- 
na dicere mstituo, pro me niat in Pontum, littercts ad 
ipso pauca dicam, before I be- Cn. Fompeium mittet, he will, 
gin to speak in defense of Lu- of course, send a letter to 
cius Murena I will say a few Gnaeus Pompeius before he 
words in my own behalf (Cic, gets to Pontus (Cic, Agr., ii., 
Mur., 1,2). 20, 53). 

Petilini non antequam Tragoedi coUidie ante- 
vires ad standum in muris quam pr5niintient vocem 
ferendaqne arma deerant, cubantes sensim excitant, the 
the Petilini [Greek] tragedians, in a re- 



30; 



SYNTAX. 



were not beaten until strength 
to stand on the walls and hold 
their arms failed them (Liv., 
xxiii., 30, 4). 

Neque defatigabor ante- 
quam ancipiils viols ratio- 
nesque et pro omnibus et contra 
omnia disputandi perceper5, 
nor shall I yield to fatigue be- 
fore I have learned the devious 
ways and principles of argu- 
ment on both sides of all ques- 
tions (Cic., de Or., iii., 36, 145). 

Inde ante profectus est 
Antonius quam ego earn ve- 
nisse cognovi, Antonius went 
away from there before I 
learned that he had come (Cic, 
Att., xv., 1, a, 2). 

Membris utimur prius- 
quam didicimus, cuius ea 
causa utilitatis habedmus, we 
use our limbs before we have 
learned for what useful pur- 
pose we have them (Cic, Fin., 
iii., 20, 66). 

Neque prius fug ere desti- 
terunt, quam ad jiumen Rhe- 
num . . . pervenerunt, nor 
did they stop fleeing before 
they reached the river Rhine 
(Caes., B. £., i., 53). 

Antequam tuas leg! litte- 
ras, hominem ire citpiebam, 
before I read your letter I 
wanted the man to go (Cic, 
Att., ii., 7, 2). 



dining position, daily practice 
raising their voices gradually 
louder and louder, before they 
are to declaim their parts (Cic, 
de Or., i., 59, 25l). 

Priusquam inde digre- 
derentur, roganti Mettio, ex 
foedere Icio quid imperaret, 
imperat Tullus, uti iuventutem 
in armis habeat, in answer to 
the question of Mettius before 
they left the place, what his 
orders were in accordance with 
the treaty they had struck, Tul- 
lus ordered him to keep the 
young men under arms (Liv., 
i., 26, 1). 

Inde ante discessit quam 
ilium venisse audissem, he 
went from there before I had 
heard of his having come (Cic, 
Att., xiv., 20, 2). 

Numidae priusquam ex 
castrls subvenlretur, sicutl 
iussi erant, in proximos colles 
descendunt, the Numidians go 
down, as they had been ordered, 
to the nearest hills before aid 
from the camp could arrive 
(Sail., lug., 54). 

Non prius Viridovicem re- 
liquosque duces ex concilio 
dlmiitunt, quam ab his sit 
concessum, they do not let 
Yiridovix and the other leaders 
go from the meeting before 
they have granted (Caes., B. 
G., iii., 18). 



ANTEQUAM, PBIUSQUAM. — POSTQUAM, UBI. 307 

Note. The difference between the two moods can he seen most plainly 
in the fourth pair of examples ahove. Here the indicative simply chroni- 
cles the fact that Antonius had gone before Cicero learned of his coming-, 
the subjunctive implies that Cicero's not knowing of his coming prevented 
him from stopping Antonius' departure. In the first subjunctive example 
there is an implication that it is important to have the letter sent before 
the writer himself appears ; in the second example the purpose of the 
practice is hinted at in the subjunctive pronuntient, and so on. 

a. Beginning, perhaps, with Livy, the feeling for this differ- 
ence between an indicative and a subjunctive in temporal clauses 
is more and more confused, and the subjunctive becomes more 
and more common where it is difficult, if not impossible, to see 
why the indicative should not have been used. Thus : — 

Panels ante diebus quam Syracusae caperentur, T. Ota- 
cilius cum quinqueremibus octoginta Uticam ab Lilybaed trans- 
misit, a few days before Syracuse was taken, Titus Otacilius 
crossed over to Utica from Libybaeum with eighty men-of-war 
(Liv., xxv., 31, 12). 

Cf. also Clauses with Cum, 509. 

Glauses with Postquam, Ubi, etc. 

506. Clauses with postquam (posteaquani), " after," 
and ub i, "when," "after," "as soon as," almost always, 
and clauses with ut, " when," " as soon as," and simul dc, 
"as soon as," perhaps always, take the indicative, simply 
stating (or denying) that the act of the main clause is sub- 
sequent to that of the temporal clause. These conjunc- 
tions have a preference for the perfect tense, even where 
the pluperfect would be more exact (cf. 469). Thus : — 

Millies postquam victoriam adept! sunt, nihil reliqui 
victis f ecere, the soldiers, after they [had] won the victory, left 
nothing to the conquered (Sail., Cat., 11) ; postquam instruct! 
utriusque stabant, ... in medium duces procedunt, af- 
ter they got into position on both sides, . . . the leaders came 
forward into the space between (Liv., i., 23, 6) ; ubi de eius 
adventu Helvetil certiores fact! sunt, legatos ad eum mittunt, 
when (after) the Helvetians were informed of his arrival, they 



308 SYNTAX. 

sent ambassadors to him (Caes., B. G., i., 7) ; Pompeius ut 
equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit, after Pompeius 
saw his cavalry routed he withdrew from the battle (Caes., 
B. C, iii., 94) ; simul ac primum el occasio visa est, 
aversa pecunia publico, quaestor consulem deseruit, as soon as it 
seemed to him a good opportunity, the quaestor, appropriating the 
funds of the state, abandoned his consul (Cic, Verr., i., 13, 34). 

507. Other temporal expressions than ante, prius, 
and post are sometimes followed by a clause with quam. 
Thus : — 

Intra triduum quam oppugnare coeperat, receptam \ur- 
beni] ex hostibus colonls restituit, within three days from be- 
ginning the siege he recovered the town from the enemy and 
restored it to the settlers (Liv.. xli., 16, 8) ; Lilyhaeum tertio 
die quam inde profectus erat . . . rediit, he came back 
to Lilybaeum three days after he had gone from there (Liv., 
xxv., 31, 14) ; multa, mehercule fecit Antonius pridie quam 
tu ilium relinqueres, Antonius was very active indeed the day 
before you left him (cf. Yell., Pater., ii., 83, 3) ; cum eo Catulus 
et Lucullus nosque ipsi postridie venissemus quam apud Coy 
tulum fuissemus, when Catulus, Lucullus, and myself had 
come there the day after we had been at Catulus's house (Cic, 
Acad., ii., 3, 9). 

508. Livy, Tacitus, and the later writers sometimes 
use the subjunctive (pluperfect as well as imperfect) with 
ubi (and quotient), to denote the general repetition of 
an act in past time, where the classical writers have the 
indicative. Thus : — 

Id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emlttebat, when 
[every time] he had said this, he would throw a spear into their 
country (Liv., i., 32, 14) ; quotiens super tall negotio consul- 
taret, edita domus parte ac Ubertl unites conscientiaZ utebatur, 
whenever he conferred about a matter of this kind, he would 
retire to the upper part of the palace and take only one freed- 
man as a witness (Tac, Ann., vi., 21). 



POSTQUAM, UB1. - CUM (QUOM). 309 

Cf. under Conditional Sentences, 477, d, 2, and under cum, 
510, 1, and examples 8-13 in the indicative column, 9-11 in 
the subjunctive column. 

Note 1. Ut is found with the subjunctive only in the following- exam- 
ple : — 

lam ut llmen exirem ad genua accidit lacrumans misera, the minuto 
I crossed the threshold the poor girl fell weeping at my feet (Ter., Hec, 
iii., 3, IS). 

Note 2. Postquam also occurs in one or two passages with the subjunc- 
tive, though in the few places in Cicero where it occurs in the manuscripts 
(in the form posted quam) the best texts now read posted cum. 

Clauses with Cum (Quom). 

509. (1.) Clauses with cum (quom), " when," if pres- 
ent, imperfect, or future, mark a collateral event occurring 
at the same time as the main event ; if perfect, pluperfect, 
or future perfect, they mark a collateral event occurring 
just before the main event. 

(2.) If only this temporal relation exists between the 
two events, the cum clause takes the indicative. 

(3.) If a further relation * exists, but the actual oc- 
currence of the collateral event is more important than that 
relation, the cum clause again takes the indicative. 

(4.) But if the marking of the further relation is the 
more important thing to the writer, the cum clause takes 

the SUBJUNCTIVE. 

a. In the imperfect and pluperfect tenses the subjunctive is 
so much more common f than the indicative, even where a 
difference of meaning is hardly appreciable, that it is a good 
practical rule for the beginner in writing Latin, that these tenses 
should not be used in the indicative. 

* That is, if one event is to be regarded as causing, hindering, or other- 
wise affecting the other. 

t The proportion of subjunctives to indicatives in Cicero's orations is 
about five to one for the imperfect tense, more than twenty to one for the 
pluperfect. 



310 SYNTAX. 

Note. The subjunctive with cum is a characteristic subjunctive, as with 
the relative pronouns. (Of. 500, 2, note.) The primary difference of mean- 
ing between the indicative and the subjunctive is thus roughly indicated 
by the expressions " at the time when " (indicative), " at a time when" 
(subjunctive). (Cf. the first pair of examples below.) 

510. From the simple temporal meaning, cum (jquorn) 
passes into the meanings : — 

(1.) "Whenever" (application general) "] chiefly with the 

" Now that " (applying to the im- I indicative, until 

mediate present) f after the classical 

" In that " (explanatory) J period. 

(2.) " Although " (implying a hindrance) ~\ with the sub- 

" Since " (implying a reason) I junctive, ex- 

" While on the other hand" (an alter- j cept in early 

native) J Latin. 

a. In Plautus and Terence and other early Latin writers, the 
subjunctive with quom is rare, the indicative being used, whether 
the mere fact of time is to be expressed or a reason is to be 
implied. 

511. These uses and shades of meaning can best be 
understood by a careful study of a series of examples like 
the following : — 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Nam in ceteris rebus cum Nunc in ipso discrimine 

venit calamitas, turn detri- ordinis iudiciorumque vestro- 

mentum accipitur, for in eve- rum, cum sint parati qui, 

ry thing else the damage is re- etc., now at the very crisis of 

ceived only when the disaster the danger to the senate and to 

actually comes (Cic, Leg. your right of supplying juries, 

Man., 6, 15). at a time when there are peo- 

Cum haec Romae ageban- pie ready to, etc. (Cic, Verr. 

tur, Chalcide Antiochus sol- Act., i., 1, 2). 

licitabat civiiatium animos, Ipse, cum primum pa- 

when this was going on at buli copia esse inciperet, ad 



CLAUSES WITH CUM (Qt/OI/). 



311 



Rome, Antiochns was stirring 
up the feelings of the cities at 
Chalcis (Liv, xxxvi., 5, l). 

Cum haec leges, habebi- 
mus consules, when you read 
this we shall have consuls (Cic, 
Att., v., 12, 2). 

Cum primum Rdmam 
vein, nihil prius faciendum 
putavi, as soon as I got to 
Rome I thought nothing ought 
to be done earlier (Cic, Att., 
iv,, 1, 1). 

Nondum centum et decern 
anni sunt cum de pecunils 
repetundis a L. Pisone lata 
lex est, nulla anted cum fuis- 
set, it is not yet a hundred and 
ten years since Lucius Piso 
proposed a law about bribery, 
there having been none before 
(Cic, Off., ii, 21, 75). 

Turn cum in Asia res 
magnas permulti amiserant, 
scimus Romae solutione im- 
pedita fid em concidisse, at 
that time, when a large number 
of people had lost large for- 
tunes in Asia, we know that 
payment was obstructed at 
Rome and credit collapsed 
(Cic, Leg. Man., 7, 19). 

Sin cum potuero, non 
venero, turn erit inimicus, 
but if I do not come when I 
can, then he will be my enemy 
(Cic, Att., ix., 2, a, 2). 



exercitum venit, he himself, as 
soon as there began to be 
plenty of fodder, went to the 
army (Caes, B. G., ii., 2). 

Zenonem cum Athenis es- 
sem, audiebam frequenter, 
during my stay at Athens I 
often attended Zeno's lectures 
(Cic, N. D, i, 21, 59). 

P otero silere, Hortensi, po- 
tero dissimulare, cum tan- 
tum res publica volnus acce- 
perit ? can I be silent, Hor- 
tensi us, can I hide my feel- 
ings at a time when the state 
has received so severe a 
wound ? (Cic, Verr., v., 70, 
179). 

Cum eius promissis legi- 
ones forlissimae reclamas- 
sent, domum ad se venire ius- 
sit centuriones, when the le- 
gions most stoutly held out 
against his promises, he ordered 
the centurions to come to his 
house (Cic, Phil., v., 8, 22). 

Cum hostem popull Rb~- 
mani Antdnium iudicasset, 
comes esse eius amentiae no- 
luit, having judged Antony 
the enemy of the Roman peo- 
ple, he did not wish to be the 
companion of his madness 
(Cic, Phil., iii, 3, 6). 

Haec Scipio cum dixis- 
set, L. Furium repente veni- 
entem adspexit, etc., when 



312 



SYNTAX. 



Serpit delude res, quae pro- 
cllvius ad perniciem, cum 
semel coepit, labitur, then 
the thing winds along, and 
when it has once begun glides 
swiftly to destruction (Cic, 
Am., 12, 41). 

Deiude cum similis sen- 
sus exstitit amdris, si ali- 
quem, etc., secondly, when a 
like feeling of affection has 
arisen, if any one, etc. (Cic, 
Am., 8, 27). 

Cum ad vlllam veni, hoc 
ipsum nihil agere et plane 
cessare me delectat, when I 
come to my country seat, this 
very inactivity and absolute 
idleness charm me (cf. Cic, 
de Or., ii., 6, 24). 

Cum pater familiae in- 
lustriore loco natus deces- 
sit, eius propnnqul conve- 
niunt, when the head of a 
house of high birth dies, his 
kinsmen gather together (Caes., 
B. G., vi., 19). 

Cum rosam viderat, turn 
incipere ver arbitrabatur, 
whenever he saw a rose he 
thought spring was beginning 
(Cic, Verr., v., 10, 27). 

Plerumque mllites statlvis 
castrls habebat, nisi cum odds 
out pabull egestas locum mu- 
tare subegerat, he generally 
had been keeping the soldiers 



Scipio had said this, he looked 
up and suddenly saw Lucius 
Furius coming (Cic, Re Pub., 
i., 11, 17). 

Cum autem contrahat 
amicttiam, ut supra dlxi, si 
qua significatio virtutis elu- 
ceat, ad quam se similis ani- 
mus adplicet et adiungat, id 
cum contigit, amor exoriatur 
necesse est, and when, in case 
as I have said, some indication 
of merit flashes out, towards 
which a like nature is drawn 
to unite itself, a friendship is 
formed, — when this happens, 
affection must arise (Cic, Am., 
14, 48). 

Ut A. Varius, qui est ha- 
bitus iildex clurior, dlcere con- 
sessorl solebat, cum datls 
testibus alii tamen citaren- 
tur, as Aulus Varius, who 
was" considered an austere 
judge, used to say to his col- 
league on the bench, when, af- 
ter some witnesses had been 
heard, others were still all the 
time being called (Cic, Fin., 
ii., 19, 62). 

Cum in ius duel debito- 
rem vidissent, undique con- 
volabant, whenever they saw a 
debtor arrested, they gathered 
from all sides (Liv., ii., 27, 8). 

Neque hereditatem cuius- 
quam adiit, nisi cum ami- 



CLAUSES WITH CUM (QUOM). 



313 



in the same camp, except when 
miasma or want of fodder had 
compelled him to change his 
position (Sail., lug., 44). 

Atque tctinam tarn in pe- 
rxculo fuisset ! cum ego its, 
quibus meam salutem ca- 
rissimam esse arbitrabar, mi- 
miciss uriis cr Fidel iss imisque 
usus sum, and oh that it 
had been in such danger ! now 
that I have found those most 
hostile and cruel to whom I 
thought my safety was most 
dear (Cic, Att., iii., 13, 2). 

Sunt enim qicidam, qui 
molestas amicitids faciunt, 
cum ipsi se contemni putant, 
for there are people who make 
friendship a bore, when [in 
that] they keep fancying them- 
selves slighted (Cic, Am., 20, 
72). 

Quae cuni praeponunt 
ut sit aliqua rerum select id, 
naturam videntur sequi ; 
cum autem negant ea, quic- 
quam ad beatam vltam per- 
tinere, rursus naturam re- 
linquunt, when [in that] they 
put forward this doctrine, that 
there is a choice in things, 
they seem to follow nature, but 
in that [when] they maintain 
that the things have nothing to 
do with happiness they leave 



citia meruisset, nor did he 
accept any man's bequests ex- 
cept when they belonged to him 
through right of friendship 
(Tac, Ann., ii., 48). 

Quod cum mains esse vi- 
deatur quam msania, tamen 
ekes modi est ut, etc., and al- 
though this seems to be 
greater than insanity, yet its 
nature is such that, etc. (Cic, 
Tusc, iii., 5, ll). 

Hlc tu me accusas quod 
me adflictem, cum ita sim 
adflictus, ut nemo umquam, 
under these circumstances you 
upbraid me because I bewail 
my lot, when I have been tried 
as no man was ever tried (Cic, 
Att., iii., 12, 1). 

Itaque fama et multitiidi- 
nis iudicio moventur, cum 
id hoiiestum putent, quod 
a plerisque laudetu7\ therefore 
they are influenced by what 
men say and by the judgment 
of the crowd, when they imag- 
ine that right which is ap- 
proved by the majority (Cic, 
Tusc, ii., 26, 63). 

Qua caecatl homines, cum 
quaedam etiam praeclara 
cuperent, eaque nescirent 
nee ubi nee qualia essent, 
funditus alii, etc., and men, 
blinded by this, while desiring 
some things really admirable, 



314 



SYNTAX. 



nature again (Cic, Fin., iv., but not 'knowing either where 

16, 43). or what they were, have some 

Gratulor tibi, cum tanticm of them utterly, etc. (Cic, 

vales apud Doldbellam, I Tusc, iii., 2, 4). 

congratulate you in that you Quae cum ita sint Cati- 

have so nauch influence with Una perge quo coepisti, since 

Dolabella (Cic, Att., xiv., 17, [now that] this is so, Catiline, 

a, 3). go on as you have begun (Cic, 

Quom adfinitatevostrame Cat., i., 5, 10). 

arbitrammi dignum, habed \_Dionysius~], cum in com- 

vobis, Philto, magnam gra- munibus suggesfis consistere 

tiam, in that [since] your fa- rion auderet, cdntionavi ex 

mily think me worthy of their turri alta solebat, Dionysius, 

alliance, Philto, I am very not daring to take his place 

grateful (Plaut., Trin., 504). on the general platforms, used 

Di tibi, Demea, bene fa- to speak from a high tower 

ciant, quoin te video nos- (Cic, Tusc, v., 20, 59). 

trae familiae tarn ex animo Cum inimlcitiae fuerint 

factum, velle, the gods bless numquam . . . rel publicae 

you, Demea, now that [since] providebo, since there never 

I see you wish our family so have been enmities ... I will 

thoroughly well (Ter., Ad., look out for the country (Cic, 

917). Prov. Cons., 20, 47). 

a. When cum has the general meaning " whenever," the 
tense is more commonly one of completed action. (Cf. the ex- 
amples.) 

b. The meaning of cum is often more exactly denned (espe- 
cially with the indicative) by the addition of words like pri- 
mum, interim, interea, nondum, quidem, tamen, etc (Cf. the 
examples.) 

512. Sometimes, by an inversion which also occurs in 
English, the main statement is put into the cum clause, 
and the (grammatically) principal clause contains the 
accessory statement. The cum clause then stands after 
the main clause, and usually takes the indicative. Thus : — 



CUM (QUOM). — CUM . . . TUM. 



315 



Indicative. 

Dixerat hoc 'die, cum puer 
nuntiavit venire ad eum 
Laelium domoque iam exlsse, 
he had just finished speaking, 
when a slave brought word that 
Laelius was coming, and had 
already left the house (Cic, Re 
Pub., i., 12, 18). 

Dies nonclum decern inter- 
cesserant, cum Me alter fi- 
lms infans necatur, ten days 
had not yet intervened, when 
that other infant son was slain 
(Cic, Clu., 9, 28). 

Primo dctu placed, quom 
intered rumor venit datum 
iri gladiatores ; populus con- 
volat, in the first act I win 
applause, when suddenly a re- 
port comes that there is to he 
a prize fight, and the people 
flock thither (Ter., Hec, 39). 

a. This inversion gives a more lively effect to what is said. 
Compare in English, "When we reached the middle of the 
valley, the cannon suddenly thundered forth," and "We had 
reached the middle of the valley, when suddenly the cannon 
thundered forth." 

Note. The pupil should be cautioned that this inversion does not al- 
ways take place when the cum clause stands after the main clause. 

513. Cum . . . turn pass from the meaning "when 
. . . then " into the meanings " while . . . yet," " not 
only . . . but also," " both . . . and," and then are often 
used to connect single words or expressions. (Cf. the last 
example below.) Thus : — 



Subjunctive. 

Simulat se eorum praesidio 
co?ifidere, cum intered aliud 
quiddam iam diu machine- 
tur, he pretends that he has 
confidence in their protection, 
while meantime he has been 
long concocting another scheme 
(Cic, Verr., Act i., 6, 15). 

Ego in castra a. d. VII K, 
Sept. vent, cum intered su- 
perior ibus diebus ex sendi us- 
ed nsulto et evocatorum fir- 
mam manum et equitdtum 
comparavissem, I went into 
camp on the twenty-sixth of 
August, when meanwhile dur- 
ing the days before I had got 
together in accordance with 
the Senate's decree a strong 
force of retired veterans and 
cavalry (Cic, Fam., xv. ? 4, 3). 



316 SYNTAX. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Cratippum cum audio lu- Consilium tuum cum sem- 
benter, turn etiam propriam per probavissem turn mul- 
eius suavitdtem vehementer to mag is probavi leetis tuts 
ampleetor, I not only hear Cra- litteris, though I had always 
tippus gladly, but even am par- approved your plan, I ap- 
ticularly fond of his peculiar proved it much more after 
charm of style. having read your letter. 

Sed cum multis in rebus Gumque plurimas et maxi- 
neglegentid plectimur, turn mas commoditdtes amicitia 
maxime in amicis et diligen- contineat, turn ilia nimirum 
dis et colendls, but while in praestat omnibus, etc., and 
many things we are punished while friendship includes very 
for carelessness, this is particu- many great advantages, it no 
larly the case in choosing and doubt surpasses all other things 
cultivating friends (Cic, Am., in this, that it, etc. (Cic, Am., 
22, 85). 7, 23). 

Ille auidem fruetum omnis ante actae vltae hodiernd die 
maximum cepit, cum summo consensu senatus turn iudicid 
tuo gravissimo et maximo, as far as he is concerned, he has 
to-day reaped the richest fruit of all his past life, both through 
the unanimous approval of the senate and through your most 
weighty and exalted decision (Cic, Marc., 1, 3). 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 
The CONSTRUCTIONS OF INDIRECT DISCOURSE include : — 

1. Indirect discourse proper. 

2. Indirect questions. 

3. Clauses of quoted cause. 

4. Other dependent clauses giving another's idea without 
any verb of saying expressed. 

5. Clauses in the subjunctive by attraction. 

Indirect Discourse Proper. 
514. When a person's words or thoughts (whether an- 
other person's or the speaker's own) are quoted, not in 
their exact grammatical form, but in narrative form de- 



INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 317 

pending' upon a word of saying or thinking, the quotation 
is called indirect (0 ratio obllqua*). 

515. In indirect discourse : — 

(1.) All subordinate verbs are put in the subjunctive. 

(2.) The main verb is put in the infinitive, except 
that — 

(3.) Imperatives are put in the subjunctive, and hor- 
tatory and dubitative subjunctives retain their mood. 

Thus : — 

Dlcit hlc sibi non placere, quod quaedam non invenian- 
tur, quibus sibi opus sit, he says he does not like it here, be- 
cause certain things of which he has need are not found (illl 
non placet, quod . . . non inveniuntur, quibus el opus est). 

Dixit se non credere ; an fieri id posse, he said he did not 
believe it ; or could this be done ? (non credo ; an fieri id 
potest ?) 

Dlcit aleam iactam esse ; quid faciat ? statim proficis- 
cantur exercitusque sequatur, he says the die is cast ; what 
can he do ? let them start at once and let the army follow (dlea 
iacta est ; quid f aciam ? statim proficiscimini exercitusque 
sequatur) . 

516. If the verb of saying or thinking upon which an 
indirect discourse depends denotes past time (i. e., is im- 
perfect, historical perfect, or pluperfect), the dependent 
clauses, as a rule, are all thrown into the past (i. e., the 
imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive f). Thus : — 

Indirect. Direct. 

1. Ad haec Ariovistus respondit: 

Ius esse belli, ut, qui vi- " lus est belli, ut, qui vi- 

cissent, ils quos vicissent, cerint, Us quos vicerint, 

quem ad modmn vellent, quern ad modum {voiunt}? 

* Direct Discourse is called in Latin Ordtio recta. 

t These tenses, therefore, do not always imply non-fulfillment in condi- 
tional clauses quoted, but often merely indicate that a supposed case is 
thrown into the past. 



318 



SYXTAX. 



imperarent : item populum 
Eomanum v ictls non ad alte- 
ring praescrlpium, seel ad suum 
arbitrium imperare consu- 
esse. Si ipse populo Roma- 
no rion praescriberet. quern 
ad modum sua lure uteretur. 
rion oportere sese a populo 
Romano in suo lure impediri. 
Haeduos sibi. quoniam belli 
fortunam teraptassent et 
armls congress! do superdt! 
essent. stipendiaries esse 
fact5s. Magnam Caesar ein 
iniuriam facere, qui suo ad- 
ventu cectlgdlia sibi deteri- 
ora faceret. Haedids se ob- 
sides redditurura non esse. 
neque its neque eorum sociis 
iniuria helium iUaturum. 
si in eo manerent quod 
convenissent stipendiumque 
quotanriis penderent ; si id 
rion f ecissent. longe its fra- 
ternum nomen populi Romani 
afuturum. Quod sibi Cae- 
sar denuntiaret. se Haedu- 
drum iniurids non neglectu- 
rum, neminem secum sine 
sua pemicie contendisse. 
Cum vellet. congrederetur : 
inteHecturum. quid invictl 
German!, exercitdtissimi in 
armis, qui inter annos quat- 
tuordecim tectum non subis- 
sent. virtiite possent. 



imperent : item populus Ro- 
manus victls non ad alterlus 
praescriptum, sed ad suum 
arbitrium imperare consue- 
vit. Si ego pjopjulo Romano 
iwn praescribo, quem ad, mo- 
dum sua id re utatur, non 
oportet me a populo Ro- 
mano in meo iure impediri. 
Haedui mini, quoniam belli 
fort una m temptarunt et ar- 
mls congress! dc superdt! 
sunt, stipendiarii sunt f ac- 
ti. Magnam tu, Caesar. 
iniuriam facis, qui tuo ad- 
vent u recti gdlia mini deter i- 
ora facis. Haedids obsides 
non reddam. neque Us neque 
eorum sociis iniuria bellum 
illaturus sum. si in eo 
{KlKt} V™ d convene- 
runt stipendiumque quotan- 

cerint. longe lis fraternum 
nomen populi Barnaul aberit. 
Quod mini denuntias, te 
Haeduorum iniurids non ne- 
glecturum. nemo mecum 
sine sua pemieie contendit. 
Cum | ?eiS' 1 congredere:in- 
telleges. quid invictl Ger- 
man!, exercitdtissimi in ar- 
mis, qui inter annos quattuor- 
decim tectum non { iSSieSS* } 
virtute possint (Caes., B. G,, 
i., 36). 



INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 319 

2. Quod st veteris contume- 2. Quod si veteris contu- 
liae oblivisci vellet, num meliae obllvlscl velim, num 
etiam recentium iniuriarum, etiam recentium iniuriarum, 
quod eo invito iter per pro- quod me invito iter per pro- 
vinciam per vim temptas- vineiam per vim tempt astis, 
sent, quod Haeduos, quod quod Haeduos, quod Ambar- 
Ambarros, quod Allobrogas ros, quod Allobrogas vexa- 
vexassent, memoriam depo- stis, memoriam deponere 
nere posse? Quod sua, vie- {]S5i} ? Quod vestra, vic- 
toria, tain Insolenter gloria- tprid tarn Insolenter glori- 
rentur quodque tain diu se amini quodque tarn diu vos 
impune tulisse iniurids ad- iinpiine tulisse iniurias ad- 
mirarentur, eodem perti- miramini, eddem pertinet 
nere. (Caes., B. G., i., 14). 

3. Caesar ad Lingonas lltterds nuntiosque mlsit : 

Ne eos frumento neve alia Ne eos frumento neve alia 

re iuvarent ; qui si itivis- re iuveritis ; si iiiveritis 

sent se eodem loco quo Hel- vos eodem loco quo Helvetios 

vetlos, hablturum. habeb5 (Caes., B. G., i., 26). 

Note. For the convenience of the pupil the following translation of the 
indirect form of the above passages is subjoined : — 

1. To this Ariovistus made answer, that it was the right of 
war for those who had conquered to lay upon those whom they 
had conquered such commands as they pleased ; the Roman 
people likewise were in the habit of laying commands upon the 
conquered not at another's dictation, but according to their own 
judgment. If he did not dictate to the Roman people how they 
were to use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by 
the Roman people in the exercise of his rights. The Haeduans 
had been made his tributaries since they had tried the fortune of 
war and had been met and defeated in battle. That Caesar 
was guilty of a great wrong in that by his arrival he was di- 
minishing his revenues from tribute. He was not going to re- 
store the Haeduans' hostages to them, nor did he intend to make 
war upon them or their allies wrongfully [as he would be 



320 SYNTAX. 

doing in case he attacked them] if they stood by their agree- 
ment and paid their tribute yearly; if they did not do this, 
they would find the name of brethren given them by the Ro- 
man people very far from being of advantage to them. As to 
Caesar's threatening him that he would not disregard injuries 
done to the Haeduans [he would say] that no one had fought 
with him without bringing destruction upon himself ; he might 
come to an engagement whenever he pleased, and would find 
out what the unconquerable Germans, who were thoroughly 
trained soldiers and had not lived under a roof for fourteen 
years, could accomplish in bravery. 

2. But if he should be willing to forget the insults of long 
standing, could he also lay aside the remembrance of the recent 
wrongs they had done, in that they had tried to force a way 
through our province against his will, and had harassed the 
Haeduans, the Ambarri, and the Allobroges ? Their boasting 
so arrogantly of the victory they had won and their surprise 
at having inflicted injuries so long without rousing vengeance 
pointed in the same direction. 

3. Caesar sent a letter and messengers to the Lingones, saying 
that they were not to aid them with grain or anything else ; if 
they did aid them, he should regard them as on a par with the 
Helvetians. 

a. Sometimes when the verb on which the Indirect Discourse 
depends is in a past tense a subordinate subjunctive is retained 
in the present tense, thus giving a more lively effect. Thus : — 

Ad haec Q. Marcius respondit : ab armis discedant, Ro- 
mam sipplices proficiscantur, to this Quintus Marcius 
answered, let them withdraw from arms and go as suppliants to 
Rome ; el legationi Ariovistus respondit : si quid ipsi a Cae- 
sare opus esset sese ad eum venturum fuisse ; si quid ille a 
se velit ilium ad se ventre oportere, to this embassy Ariovistus 
made answer, that if he had needed anything from Caesar he 
would have gone to him ; if Caesar wanted anything of him he 
[also] ought to come to him (Caes., B. G., i., 34). Cf. also 
chapters 14 and 31 of the same book. 



INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 321 

Note. By thus using - the present tense the writer brings, for the mo- 
ment, the time when the thing was originally said up to the time when it 
is quoted. Such a construction represents a sort of half-way stage between 
completely direct and completely indirect quotation. For a still more 
marked fusion of the time when a speech was made with the time at 
which it is quoted see ch. 40 of the same book : factum eius hostis peri- 
culum patrum nostrorum memorid, cum, Cimbris et Teutonis a C. Mario 
pulsls, non minorem laudem exercitus quam ipse imperator meritus vide- 
batur, that trial was made of that enemy within the memory of our 
fathers, when the Cimbri and Teutones were routed by Gaius Marius and 
the army seemed to have earned as much glory as the general himself. 
The clause cum . . . videbalur is taken out of the indirect discourse and 
said, as it were, to the reader. 

b. Of the three verbs of saying, died most commonly in- 
troduces indirect discourse, but may also introduce direct dis- 
course ; aid is used almost exclusively for indirect discourse, ex- 
cept in the phrase " ut ait Ennius, Cicero, etc. ;" inquam is 
used only for direct discourse, and always stands after some 
word or phrase of the quotation ; as, " sets me" inquam, " idem 
sentire" "you know," said I, "that I hold the same opinion." 

c. Short direct questions like quid creditis? are generally put 
in the subjunctive in indirect discourse rather than in the infini- 
tive ; quid crederent, not quid credere. (Cf. Liv., vi., 37, 6.) 

d. Relative clauses in which the relative is equivalent to a 
demonstrative and connective (cf. 451) have the force of inde- 
pendent clauses, and are generally put in the infinitive, in indi- 
rect discourse. Thus : — 

JJnumquemque nostrum [cement] eius mundi esse partem ; 
ex quo illud natura consequl, ut, etc., each one of us, they 
think, is a part of that universe : from which it naturally follows 
that, etc. (Cic, Fin., iii., 19, 64) ; quibus proelils calamitati- 
busque fractos . . . coactos esse Sequanis obsides dare, and 
that, broken by these battles and disasters, they had been 
obliged to give hostages to the Sequani (Caes., B. G., i., 31). 

So also sometimes other clauses which are dependent in form 
but independent in force ; as : — 

Saepe dictum est, ut mare, quod sua natura tranquillum sit, 



322 SYNTAX. 

ventorum vi agitari atque turbari, sic populum Romanum, 
etc., it has often been said that as the sea, which in its own na- 
ture is peaceful, is roused and put in commotion by the force of 
the winds, so the Roman people, etc. (Cic, Clu., 49, 138). 

e. Comparative clauses after quam more commonly appear in 
the infinitive (when the clause containing the other term of the 
comparison has the infinitive), but sometimes they have the sub- 
junctive with or without ut. Thus : — 

Acldit etiam se prius occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum 
iri, he adds also that he would allow himself to be killed by him 
sooner than have me injured (Cic, Ait., ii., 20, 2) ; se milieus 
morituros potius quam ut tantum dedecoris admitti patian- 
tur, that they would die a thousand times rather than suffer 
such disgraceful action to be taken (Liv., iv., 2, 8). 

Note. Cicero prefers the infinitive, Livy the subjunctive alone or with 
ut; Caesar has the infinitive and the subjunctive without ut. 

f. Subordinate clauses (mostly relative) may be retained in 
the indicative if they contain explanatory statements which are 
true independent of the quotation, or are merely a part of the 
definition of something mentioned. Thus : — 

Per exploratores certior factus est ex ea parte vici, quam 
Gallis concesserat, omnes noctu discessisse, he was informed 
by spies that everybody had left by night the part of the village 
which he had given up to the Gauls (Caes., B. G., iii., 2) ; quis 
potest esse tarn praeceps qui neget haec omnia quae videmus 
deorum potest ate administrari, who can be so rash as to deny 
that all this world we see about us is regulated by the power of 
gods ? (Cic, Cat., iii., 9, 2l). 

g. Sometimes in the same quotation a change is made from 
indirect to direct discourse. Thus : — 

Tali modo accusatus ad haec respondit : quod castra mo- 
visset, factum inopia pabull. . . . " Marc ut intellegat-is " in- 
quit " sincere a me pronuntiari, aucUte Momarios milites" 
accused in this fashion, he made answer to the accusation, that as 
to his having moved his camp, this was due to want of fodder. . . . 
" And that you may know that I am sincere in saying this," 



INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 323 

said he, " listen to [the testimony of these] Roman soldiers " 
(Caes., B. G., vii., 20). 

517. Conditions contrary to fact undergo a slight 
change of form in indirect discourse, as follows : — 

(1.) In the active voice generally the apodosis, if im- 
perfect subjunctive, becomes future infinitive (i. e., fac- 
turum, etc., esse) ; if pluperfect, it becomes facturum, 
etc., fuisse. Thus : — 

\_Titurius cldmitabat~\ neque aliter Carnutes interficiendl 
Tasgetl consilium fuisse captur5s, neque Eburones, si ille 
adesset, tantd cum contemptione nostrl ad castra venturos 
esse, Titurius kept crying out that otherwise the Carnutes 
would not have formed the plan of slaying Tasgetius, and that 
the Eburones, if he were there, would not come to camp with 
such marked contempt for us (Caes., B. G., v., 29) ; an censes 
me tantos labor es suscepturum fuisse, si Isdem flnibus glo- 
rlam meam quibus vltam essem terminaturus, or do you sup- 
pose I should have taken such toils upon myself if I had ex- 
pected to hound my glory by the same limits as my life ? (Cic, 
Sen., 23, 82). 

(2.) In the passive voice regularly, and in the active 
occasionally, the circumlocution futurum esse (fore) ut 
is used for present conditions contrary to fact, futurum 
fuisse ut for past conditions. The subjunctive used with 
this ut is then in both cases imperfect. Thus : — 

Nisi eo ipso tempore quldam nuntil de Caesaris victoria 
per dispositos equites essent adldtl, existimabant plerlque fu- 
turum fuisse ut \_opjyidum~\ amitteretur, most people 
thought that unless certain messages about Caesar's victory had 
been brought at that very time by horsemen stationed at inter- 
vals for the purpose, the town would have been lost (Caes., B. 
C.,iii., 101). 

a. Occasionally some form of posse, dehere, or the like, or a 
gerundive, takes the place of the future participle in the above 
expressions. Thus : — 



324 SYNTAX. 

Platonem exist imo, si genus for ense dicendi tractare 
set gravissinie potuisse dicere, I judge that if Plato had 
chosen to take up the forensic kind of oratory, he could have 
made a most effective speaker ; apparet non recipiendum 
f uisse Tarentum, nisi amissum foret, it would seem that Ta- 
rentum would not have had to be retaken if it had not been 
lost. (Cf. also 477 c.) 

Note. With regard to the apodoses of conditions other than those 
contrary to fact it should he ohserved that the future indicative and pres- 
ent subjunctive are represented in the indirect discourse by the future in- 
finitive, the future perfect indicative and the perfect subjunctive by fore 
ut with the perfect * subjunctive in the active voice, by the perfect parti- 
ciple with fore hi passives and deponents. Thus : — 

Dicit si roges se facturum esse, he says he will (or would) do it if you 
ask (or should ask) him, — in direct discourse, si roges (rogdbis) . . . 
faciat {faciei). 

Spero fore ut si negotia wea bene cesserint mox ad vos redierim, I hope 
that if niy affairs turn out well, I shall soon come back to you, — in direct 
discourse, si cesserint . . . redierim (rediero). 

Hoc possum dicere, me satis adeptum fore, si . . . nullum in me pericu- 
lum redunddrit, this I can say, that I shall have obtained enough if no 
danger flows back upon nie, — in direct discourse, satis adeptus ero (erim) 
. . . si . . . redunddrit (Cic, SulL, 9, 27). 

Indirect Questions. 

518. Indirect questions take the subjunctive. 
Thus : — 

JDoce me, igitur, unde sint, ub! sint, quales sint, tell me, 
then, whence [the gods] come, where they are, what their nature 
is (Cic, N. D., i., 23, 65) ; id utrum illl sentiant, an vero si- 
mulent, tu intelleges, you will understand whether that is their 
real opinion or whether they are in fact pretending (Cic.) ; 
si qualis sit animus, ipse animus nesciet, if the mind itself 
shall not know what sort of a thing the mind is (Cic, Tusc., i., 
22, 53). 

a. The expressions nescio quis, iwscio quo modo, neseio 
unde, etc., are generally equivalent to " some one," " somehow," 

* Pluperfect when the verb of saying is past (see 516). 



INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 325 

etc., and therefore having lost their interrogative force, have no 
influence upon the mood of the verb which follows them. 
Thus : — 

Sed casu. nescio quo in ea tempora aetas nostra incl- 
dit, but by some chance my life has fallen upon a time, etc. 
(Cic). 

b. So also minim quam, mirum quantum, nimium quan- 
tum ; as : — 

Sales qui in dicendo nimium quantum valent, wit, which 
has some tremendous power in oratory (Cic, Or., 26, 87). 

c. In early Latin the indicative was used in indirect ques- 
tions, and this use frequently occurs in Plautus and Terence. 
Thus : — 

Scire void, quoi reddidisti, I want to know to whom you 
gave it (Plaut., Cure., 543) ; vide avariiia quid facit, see 
what greed does (Ter., Ph., 358). 

d. Indirect questions are sometimes, by a development from 
conditional clauses which also occurs in English, introduced by 
si = " if," " whether." Thus : — 

Quaeslvit iterum si cum Romariis militare liceret, his 
second question was, whether [if] he might serve in the Roman 
army (Llv., xl., 49, 6) ; mirabar hoc si sic abiret et eri sem- 
per lenitas verebar quorsum evaderet, I wondered if [whether] 
this would [not] come out so, and was always apprehensive as to 
what master's easy discipline would result in (Ter., An., 175). 

e. Sometimes, especially in the comic poets, a direct question 
is repeated with surprise by the person to whom it is addressed, 
and thus becomes indirect and is put in the subjunctive depend- 
ing on the idea " do you ask." Thus : — 

Quid nunc faciundum censes ? Tr. Ego quid censeam ? 
What do you think ought to be done now ? Tr. What do I 
think? (Plaut., Most., 556). 

Note. Indirect questions are not to be confounded with dependent rel- 
ative clauses, though sometimes the form is the same. Thus : — 

Dlcam quae sentiam (interrogative) = quae sentio ? dlcam, What do I 



326 



SYNTAX. 



think? I will tell; dicam quae sentiam (relative) = dicam ea quae sentio 
or sentiam, I will say the things I think. 

For the use of the interrogative particles in indirect questions, see 579 ff . 

Causal Clauses with Quod, Quia, Quoniam. 
519. In causal clauses with quod or quia* "because," 
and quoniam, " since," the indicative simply asserts (or 
denies) one thing as the cause or reason of another : the 
subjunctive represents the cause as one assigned by some 
one other than the speaker or writer, — generally by the 
subject of the main clause. 

Xote. It is to he observed that the subjunctive does not deny (even by 
implication) that the reason given is the true one. On the contrary, the 
subjunctive may be used of that which the speaker believes to be the cause 
of an action, but which he does not wish to state positively as such. 



INDICATIVE. 

Ita fit ut adsint prop- 
terea, quod ojfic'nim sequon- 
tur. taceant autem, idcirco 
quia periculum vitant. so 
they are here because they are 
thus performing a duty, but 
they are silent for the reason 
that they shun danger (Cic, 
Rose. Am., 1, l). 

Quod spiratis, quod vo- 
cem mittitis, quod forums 
hominum habetis. iadignan- 
tur, they are angry because 
you breathe and speak and 
have the shapes of men (Liv., 
iv., 3. 8). 

Quo quidem etiam magis 
sum exercitus, non quia mul- 

* Quod is much commoner than qui 
junctive. 



SUBJT^TCTTVE. 

Laudat Africanum Pa- 
naetius, quod fuerit absti- 
n ens, Panaetius praises Africa- 
nus for his self-control (Cic, 
Off., ii., 22. 76). 

An paenitet vos quod sal- 
vom exercitum traduxerim? 
do ye regret my having brought 
the army over in safety ? (Caes., 
B. C, ii.. 32). 

Bene maidres accubitionem 
epularem amlcorum, quia vl- 
tae coniunctionem haberet, 
convlvium nominaverunt, our 
ancestors did well in giving to 
the reclining of friends together 
at a banquet the name " convi- 
vinm," a living together, from 

a or quoniam, especially with the sub- 



CAUSAL CLAUSES. 327 

tis debeS, sed quia saepe * its involving a community of 

concurrunt, etc., therefore I life (Cic, Sen., 13, 45). 
am even more exercised, not Regno non aequo animo 

because lam indebted to many carebds ; est autem impudens 

people, but because there often liictus maerore se conficientis, 

come together, etc. (Cic, quod imperdre non liceat li- 

Planc, 32, 78). berls, you did not bear with 

Vos, Qui rites, quoniam calmness the loss of power. 

iam nox est, in vestra tecta But his grief is shameless who 

discedite, do you, fellow citi- consumes himself with sadness 

zens, since the night is now because he may not have sway 

come, depart to your houses over freemen (Cic, Tusc, iii., 

(Cic, Cat., iii., 12, 29). 12, 26). 

Iactdtum in condicionibus nequiquam de Tarquiniis in 
regnum restituendls, magis quia id negare ipse nequiverat 
Tarquiniis, quam quod negatum iri sibi ab Romanis ignora- 
ret, mention was made in the terms — though to no purpose — 
of restoring the Tarquins to the throne, more because he had 
himself been unable to refuse that to the Tarquins, than be- 
cause he did not know well enough that the Romans would 
reject the proposition (Liv., ii., 13, 3). 

520. Dtco, puto, etc., are sometimes put in the sub- 
junctive in a causal clause, when the reason is really con- 
tained in an infinitive dependent upon them. Thus : — 

Cum eniin Hannibalis permissu exlsset de castris, rediit 
paulo post, quod se oblitum nescio quid diceret, for when 
he had gone out from the camp with Hannibal's permission, he 
returned a little later because, as he said, he had forgotten 
something (Cic, Off., i., 13, 40) ; qui istinc veniunt, superbiam 
tuam accusant, quod negent te percontantibus respondere, 
those who come from there criticise your arrogance because, as 
they say, you do not answer people who question you (Cic, 
Fam., vii., 16, 3) ; ex his Bellovaci suum numerum non 
compleverunt, quod se suo nomine atque arbitrio cum Ro- 
manis bellum gesturos dicerent, of these the Bellovaci did 



328 SYNTAX. 

not fill out their contingent, because, as they said, they were 
going to fight with the Romans on their own account and under 
their own direction (Caes., B. G., vii., 75). 

521. The subjunctive is used with non quod and non 
quo, meaning " not that " (not because), negative non 
quod non, non quo non, non quin (not but that).* 
Thus : — 

Ftsi non idcirco eorum usum dimiseram, quod its suc- 
censerem sed quod eorum me subpudebat, although I had not 
given up their intimacy because I was angry with them but 
because I was rather ashamed of them (Cic, Fam., ix., 1, 2) ; 
non qu5 mea quidem iam inter sit . . . sed, etc., not that it 
makes a difference to me any longer . . . but, etc. (Cic, d'e Or., 
ii., 18, 74) ; etsl eo te adhuc consilio usum intellego, ut id 
reprehendere non audeam, n5n quin ab eo ipse dissentiam, 
sed quod ea te sapiential esse iudico, although I see that you 
have thus far adopted a course which I should not venture to 
criticise, not that I do not myself hold a different view, but be- 
cause I have such confidence in your wisdom (Cic, Fam., iv., 
7,1). 

For qnpd = " the fact that," introducing substantive clauses, see 
540, 4. 

Glauses giving the Thought of Another. 

522. The subjunctive is used to represent the thing 
said in a subordinate clause as something in the mind of a 
person other than the speaker or writer, — generally the 
subject of the main clause (implied indirect discourse). 
Thus : — 

Faetus omnes libros quos frater suus reliquisset, mihi 
donavit, Paetus gave me all the books which his brother*had 
left \_i. e., he was influenced to give them by the fact that his 

* Non quia, non quia non, are also used, but are very rare in classical 
Latin. Occasionally all of these conjunctions, except non quo, non quo non, 
are found with an indicative, thus marking the reason distinctly as the 
actual one. 



SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION. 329 

brother, etc.] (Cie., Att., ii., 1, 12) ; Darius, dura ipse abes- 
set, pontis custodes reliquit principes, quos secum ex Ionia 
duxerat, Darius left as guards of the bridge while he should be 
absent, chieftains whom he had brought with him from Ionia ; 
Agesllaus multo gloridsvus duxit, si Institutis patriae paru- 
isset quam si hello superasset As lam, Agesilaus thought 
it a much more glorious thing if he obeyed the established 
laws of his country than if he conquered Asia in war (cf, Nep., 
Ages., 4). 

Subjunctive by Attraction. 

523. A clause depending upon a subjunctive (or an 
infinitive), and denoting something which may be re- 
garded as an integral part of the thought expressed in 
the clause on which it depends, generally takes the sub- 
junctive, though, except for such dependence, it would 
take the indicative. Thus : — 

Mds est Athenis laudari in contidne eos, qui sint in proe- 
liis interfectij it is customary at Athens for a eulogy to be 
delivered in the public assembly over those who have been 
killed in battle (Cic, Or., 44, 151) ; in Hortensio memoria 
fwit tanta, ut, quae secum commentatus esset, ea sine scripto 
verbis eisdem redderet, quibus cogitavisset, Hortensius had 
such a powerful memory, that without having written them 
down he could give expression to the things he had turned over 
in his mind, using the same words in which he had thought 
them (cf. Cic, Brut., 88, 30l) ; fiebat ut Alcibiades omnium 
ocidos, quotienscumque in publicum prodisset, ad se con- 
verter et, Alcibiades used to attract the gaze of all the people 
every time he went out. 

Note. The uses of the subjunctive given in the last two paragraphs 
(522 and 523) are merely varieties of some of the more general uses 
treated above. In many cases they might be explained as Characteristic 
subjunctives. It is, however, worth while to put them into separate cate- 
gories, because the considerations given show the reason why the subjunc- 
tive is chosen in the given case, while in cases otherwise similar, but in 
which these considerations are not present, the indicative is often found 
where a Characteristic subjunctive might be expected. 



330 SYNTAX. 

Tenses of the Subjuxcttve. 
The following points in the use of the tenses in subjunctive 
clauses should be observed : — 

524. When the thing said has really the nature of an 
occurrence (although it is expressed, as far as the mood 
goes, simply as an idea), the tenses of the subjunctive 
mark practically * the same differences of time as the 
tenses of the indicative. 

a. This is the case with — 

(1.) Clauses of Result. 

(2.) Temporal Clauses (and those developed from them). 

(3.) Clauses of Concession, with quamvts, licet, etc. 

(4.) The constructions of Indirect Discourse. Thus : — 

Socrates iam sapiens erat ut Jwdie quoque nonoretur, So- 
crates was so wise that he is honored even to-day ; tarn acriter 
pugnaverunt ut paene omnes occiclerentur. they fought so 
desperately that nearly all were slain ; haec verba ita exeel- 
lentia sunt ut deo alicui tribuerentur. these words are so 
admirable that they used to be attributed to some god. 

Cum Athenls essem, Zenonem saepe audiebam. when I was 
at Athens I often heard Zeno. 

Hoc dlcit quod verum sit. he says this because it is, as he 
thinks, true. 

525. But in the various constructions of indirect dis- 
course, if the word upon which a subjunctive depends re- 
fers to past time, the subjunctive is regularly drawn into 
the same time (i. <?., is made imperfect or pluperfect). 
Thus : — 

Turn ostendit quanta esset vis conscientiae. then he showed 

* In these tises the subjunctive has lost its modality and gained in tense 
quality (as has "been said in 483. c. vdrh the note before and after), "but, 
scientifically speaking-, this exchange was never quite complete enough to 
make the tense quality of this mood absolutely identical with that of the 
indicative. 



TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 331 

how great the power of consciousness of guilt is ; his mos erat 
omnes qui ad insulam ipsorum accessissent statim interfici, 
these people had the custom of immediately killing all who ap- 
proached their island ; laudabat Africanum Panaetius quod 
abstinens esset, Panaetius used to praise Africanus for his self- 
control. 

Note. This tendency arises, perhaps, from a desire for symmetry of ex- 
pression. The same thing 1 is occasionally shown in dependent indicative 
clauses (see 470, 8), and is at the bottom of the so-called subjunctive by 
attraction. A similar attraction of tense occurs in English also, though 
not with the same regularity as in Latin. See the second example above. 
Also compare with each other the two forms in which each of the follow- 
ing sentences may be expressed : — 

That battle showed what unaided valor CAN do. 

That battle showed what unaided valor COULD do. 

If he were here, he would do what the occasion DEMANDS. 

If he were here, he would do what the occasion demanded. 

526. When the thing said is not thought of as an 
occurrence at all, but only as an idea in the mind of the 
speaker or writer, the primary tenses of the subjunctive 
are used in speaking of a present (or future) situation, 
the secondary tenses in speaking of a past situation. The 
perfect and pluperfect differ from the present and imper- 
fect only in their implication of completed action. 

a. This is the case with : — 

(1.) Subjunctives in Independent Sentences.* 

(2.) Conditional clauses * (including Concessions and Com- 
parisons). 

(3.) Clauses of Purpose (whether pure purpose or substan- 
tive clauses). 

Thus, haud facile discernas, like the English " you cannot 
easily tell," applies to a present situation; haud facile discer- 
neres, like " you could not easily tell," applies to a past situa- 
tion. So, hunc librum tibi do, ut eum legas, I give you this 

* The use of the imperfect subjunctive to denote a wish or a supposi- 
tion unfulfilled in present time is only an apparent exception, and has been 
sufficiently treated in 473, a, and 477, a. 



332 SYNTAX. 

book to read, indicates a present purpose ; hunc librum tibi dedi, 
ut eum legeres, implies a past purpose (i. e., what was the pur- 
pose at the time of giving). 

Note. In these uses, as there is no question of the occurrence of any- 
thing, there is no definite time relation to the moment of speaking or 
writing, as when the indicative is used, or as there is (by implication) in 
the cases treated under 524, and the mood quality of the subjunctive is 
much more marked than its tense quality. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

527. The imperative mood is used to express directly 
commands, requests, and advice. Thus : — 

Hue ades, come here (Verg., Eel., 2, 45). 
N5sce te, know thyself (Cic, Tuse., i., 22, 52). 
Aequam memento servare mentem, remember to keep an 
unruffled mind (Hor., Carm., ii., 3, l). 

a. The negative is ne for " not," neve for " nor " or " and 
not." Non and neque are rare, and occur chiefly in poetry. 

b. The future imperative expresses the command, etc., more 
mildly than the present. But for the missing present of said, 
memirii, and of habed meaning " think," the future forms are 
used — seito, scifote, memento, mementote, habeto, habetote. 

c. The third person of the future occurs only in laws and 
wills. 

d. Fac, fac ut, cura ut, are used with a subjunctive to ex- 
press a command more strongly ; velim, nolim, malim (cf. 473, 
c, and 491), to express one less strongly, than the imperative. 
The future indicative is also sometimes used, as in English. 

e. Quin, why not, with the present indicative, is sometimes 
equivalent to a command ; as, quin accipis ? = take it (lit., why 
don't you take it?) (Ter., Heaut., 832). 

528. Prohibitions are expressed by the present im- 
perative only in poetry, by the future imperative only in 
laws, wills, precepts, etc. Thus : — 

Ne crede colori, trust not the color (Verg., Eel., 2, 17) ; 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. INFINITIVE. 333 

homiiiem morticom in urbe ne sepelito neve urito, give nei- 
ther burial nor cremation to the dead within the city (Laws 
of the XII. Tables). 

529. Otherwise prohibitions take : — 
(1.) In the second person : — 

a. Ne, with the perfect subjunctive (for a particular case 
only) ; as, hoc ne feceris, Marce, do not do this thing, Mar- 
cus. 

b. Ne, with the present subjunctive (for a general case only) ; 
as, hoc ne facias, do this not (i. e., nobody must do it). 

c. Noll, with the infinitive ; as, noil obllvlscl, do not forget. 

d. Cave, with the subjunctive ; as, cave festlnes, do not 
hurry. 

e. Fac ne, with the subjunctive (in colloquial speech). Thus : 
fac ne quid aliud cures, nisi ut convalescas, do not attend 
to anything but the recovery of your health (Cic, Fani., xvi., 

ii, i). 

(2.) In the third person : — 

Ne, with the present subjunctive ; as, donls impil ne pld- 
care audeant deos, let not the wicked presume to try to pro- 
pitiate the gods with gifts. 

Compare also 472, 2, and 472, a, 6. 

INFINITIVE. 

Note. The infinitive has the nature of a noun, in that it may be 
used as the subject or object of various verbs, or in apposition with a pro- 
noun ; it has the nature of a verb, in that it admits distinctions of tense, is 
modified by adverbs, not adjectives, and like the finite verb governs oblique 
cases. 

Subject of the Infinitive. 

530. The subject of an infinitive is put in the accu- 
sative. Thus : — 

Ad rem publicam pertinet me conservari, it concerns the 
interests of the state that I should be saved (Cic ) ; videbat id 
non posse fieri, he saw that it could not be done (Nep.). 



334 SYNTAX. 

a. But the infinitive is sometimes used in lively narration in- 
stead of the (historical) perfect indicative, and then its subject 
is in the nominative (historical infinitive). Thus : — 

Interim coitidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, 
meanwhile Caesar daily demanded grain of the Haeduans 
(Caes., B. G., 1, 16) ; nos pavidl trepidare metu, panic- 
stricken we hurry about in alarm (Verg., Ae., 2, 685). 

Infinitive as Subject. 
531. The infinitive, either with or without a subject, 
may be the subject of a verb. Thus : — 

Difficile est amicitiam manere, si a virtute defeceris, it 
is hard for friendship to abide, if you fall from virtue (Cic, 
Am., 11, 37). 

Mains dedecus est parta amittere quam omnind non para- 
visse, it is a greater disgrace to lose what you have acquired 
than not to have made any acquisitions at all (Sail., lug., 31, 
17) ; numquam igitur est utile peccare, to do wrong is there- 
fore never expedient (Cic, Off., iii., 15, 64). 

a. The infinitive is used as subject chiefly with est, erat, 
etc., and a predicate noun or adjective, or with certain imper- 
sonal verbs, such as libet, licet, oportet, videtur, piget, pudet, 
placet, praestat, refert, interest, convenit, fugit, iuvat, etc.* 

b. The infinitive may of course also be equivalent to a pred- 
icate nominative ; as : — 

Impune quaelibet facere, id est regem esse, to do with 
impunity whatever one will, that is to be king (Sail.). 

c. When the infinitive used with licet and such words has a 
predicate adjective or noun with it, this is generally put in 
the dative, whether there is a dative of indirect object ex- 

* With verbs like oportet, which, strictly speaking, have the subject in- 
volved in the verb idea (i. e., impersonals in the narrowest sense), the infin- 
itive is in origin not a subject infinitive but a complementary infinitive (see 
532). These infinitives, however, became so fused with the subject infin- 
itive, and thereby lost their resemblance to other complementary infinitives 
so thoroughly, that it seems most practical to treat them as is here done. 



COMPLEMENT AKY INFINITIVE. 335 

pressed with licet or not ; but sometimes it is put in the accu- 
sative. Thus : — 

Licuit esse otidso Themistocli, it was in Themistocles' 
power to be inactive (Cic., Tusc, i., 15, 33) ; sibi vitam filiae 
sua cariorem fuisse, si liber ae ac pudloae vivere licitum 
fuisset, [he said] that his daughter's life would have been 
dearer to him than his own, if she could have lived in freedom 
and virtue (Liv., hi., 50, 6). 

Quod si civ i Romano licet esse Gaditanum, and if a Ro- 
man citizen maybe [also] a citizen of Gades (Cic, Balb., 12, 29). 

For the subjunctive with impersonate, see 494, a, and 497. 

Complementary Infinitive. 

532. The infinitive without a subject is used with sev- 
eral classes of words which require a further action of the 
same subject to complete the meaning (complementary 
infinitive). Thus : — 

Hoc queo dicere, this I can say (Cic, Sen., 10, 32) ; haec 
vitare cupimus, this we wish to avoid (Cic.) ; poetas omnino 
non conor attingere, I do not attempt to touch the poets at all 
(Cic, de Or., ii., 14, 61 ). 

a. Such are verbs denoting ability, obligation, intention, 
or endeavor ; also verbs meaning begin, continue, cease, 

ABSTAIN, LEARN (to),* REMEMBER (to),* UNDERSTAND, DETER- 
MINE, DARE, BE AFRAID (to), # HESITATE, BE WONT. 

b. If a complementary infinitive has a predicate noun or ad- 
jective, this agrees in case with the subject of the verb on which 
the infinitive depends. Thus : — 

Aude sapiens esse, dare to be a philosopher; solet tristis 
videri, he is apt to seem sad ; iubet eum virum esse audere, 
he bids him dare to be a man. Cf. also 329, b. 

For the subjunctive with some of these verbs, see 484 ff. 

For the infinitive with a subject after verbs of wishing-, etc. , see 533, 3. 

* In the meaning-s learn, remember, be afraid, that (something) is so and 
so, these verbs of course take other constructions. (See 515 ff. ; also 490, 
and 492). 



336 SYNTAX. 

Infinitive as Object. 

533. The infinitive with a subject is used as the object 
of certain classes of verbs. Thus : — 

(1.) With verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiv- 
ing (verba sentiendl et declarandl) ; as : — 

Dioit se eras venturum esse, he says he will come to-mor- 
row ; centuriones nihil temere agendum esse existimabant, 
the centurions thought that nothing ought to be clone inconsi- 
derately ; audwl te venisse, I heard you had come ; sentit 
igitur animus se . . . sua vi, rion aliena, mover!, the mind 
therefore perceives that its activity is from its own force, not 
from an outside force (Cic, Tusc., i., 23, 55). 

(2.) With verbs of determining, decreeing, and the like ; 
as : — 

Meiellus statuit alio more bellum gerendum esse, 
Metellus determined that the war must be carried on in an- 
other fashion. 

(3.) With verbs of wishing (mostly when a new subject is 
introduced), and with iubeo and veto. Thus : — 

Hoc velim intellegt, I should like to have this understood 
(Cic.) ; legati quod erant appellatl superbius, Corinthum 
patres vestrl . . . exstinctum esse voluerunt, your fathers 
insisted on the destruction of Corinth because their ambas- 
sadors had been addressed rather arrogantly (Cic, Leg. Man., 
5, ll) ; me amari void, I wish to be loved ; iubet nos 
Pythius Apollo noscere nosmet ipsos, the Pythian Apollo bids 
us know ourselves ; legatos Caesar discedere vetuerat, Cae- 
sar had forbidden the ambassadors to depart (Caes., B. 67., 2, 
20). 

(4.) With verbs of emotion and feeling ; as : — 

Gaudeo te salvom venisse, I am glad that you have ar- 
rived safely; Antonius se simile m esse Catillnae glSriari 
solebat, Antonius used to boast that he was like Catiline ; multl 
peccasse se rion anguntur, obiurgarl moleste ferunt, many 



INFINITIVE WITH CERTAIN VERBS. 337 

people are not distressed that they have done wrong, but take it 
ill to be found fault with ; miror * te ad me nihil scrlbere, I 
wonder that you do not write to me at all. 

(5.) With verbs of hoping, promising, vowing, threaten- 
ing, swearing, the future infinitive is regularly used. Thus : — 

Spero te id facturum esse, I hope you will do so ; promi- 
sit se ventururn esse, he promised to come ; totam se urbem 
deleturum esse minatur, he threatens to destroy the entire 
town ; niimquam amlcum se R.omanis futurum esse iurabat, 
he swore he would never be a friend to the Romans. 

Note. This use of the infinitive is the regular construction of indirect 
discourse. (See 515 ff.) 

For the subjunctive with some of these verbs, see 484 ff. 

Infinitive with dicor, vide or, fertur, etc. 

534. Several verbs, which in the active take an accusa- 
tive and infinitive, are used personally in the passive 
rather than impersonally,! the subject-accusative of the 
infinitive thus becoming the subject-nominative of the 
finite verb. Thus : — 

Dicor vir probus esse, I am said to be an upright man ; 
vetamur hoc f acere, we are forbidden to do this ; videor 
diem ilium videre, I seem to see that day ; Numae regnum 
pacatum esse traditur, Numa's reign is said to have been a 
peaceful one. 

a. A predicate word with the infinitive in this use is of 
course nominative, as in the first example. 

b. In poetry, sometimes a predicate word is put in the nomi- 
native (by a Greek idiom) after an active verb of saying ; 
as : — 

Phaselus ille, quern videtis, hospites, ait fuisse navium 
celerrimus, that skiff you see, there yonder, friends, doth 
say, she was of boats the swiftest in her day (Cat., 4, l). 

* Cf . also substantive quod clauses, 540, 4. 

t The impersonal construction also occurs, but chiefly with the gerun- 
dive or perfect participle. 



338 SYNTAX. 

Other Uses of the Infinitive. 

535. The infinitive (generally with the interrogative 
ne) is used in exclamations. Thus : — 

M ene incept o desistere victam, X, defeated, abandon my 
undertaking! (Verg., Aen., 1, 37) ; quemquamnQ hominem 
in animo instituere, that any man should take the determi- 
nation ! (Ter., Ad., 38). 

Cf. the subjunctive, with main verb omitted, 482, d, and 492, c. 

536. The infinitive retains its original use of express- 
ing a purpose in a few expressions. Thus : — 

(1.) With habeo, do, ministro, in a few passages ; as : — 

Tantum habeo pollicerl, I have so much to promise (Cic, 
Fam., i., 5, a, 3). 

(2.) With paratus and suetus {Insuetus), used as adjectives. 
Thus : — 

Omnia perpeti paratus, ready to endure all; insuetus 
vera audire, unaccustomed to hear the truth (Llv., xxxi., 18, 
3). 

a. In poetry a great many adjectives are used with the infini- 
tive, where we might rather expect a gerund or a subjunctive 
clause. Thus : — 

Cedere nescius, unknowing how to yield (Hor., Carm., i., 6, 
6); avidi committere piignam, eager for the fray (Ovid., 
M., 5, 75) ; certa mori, bent upon death (Verg., Aen., 4, 564) ; 
dignus amari, worthy to be loved (Verg., Eel., 5, 89). 

b. A rare case of the use of the infinitive as a noun is : ut 
inter optime valere et gravissime aegrotare nihil prorsus 
dicerent interesse, so that they said there was absolutely no dif- 
ference between being perfectly well and most seriously ill (Cic, 
Fm., ii., 13, 43). Cf. beate vivere vestrum quale est ! your 
living happily, — what does it amount to ? 

c. The infinitive of purpose depending upon a verb is occa- 
sionally used by the poets ; as : — 

Proteus pecus egit altos visere monies, Proteus drove his 
herds to visit the high mountains (Hor., Carm., i., 2, 7). 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 339 

Omission of the Infinitive. 

537. Esse (jm& fuisse)* especially as elements of the 
future active and perfect passive infinitives, are often 
omitted, particularly after verbs of saying or thinking; 
as: — 

Vos cognovl fortes [esse], I have found you brave ; adule- 
scentl morem gestum [esse] oportuit, the young gentleman 
should have been humored (Ter., Ad., 214) ; promisit se ven- 
turum [esse], he promised to come. 

a. In a relative clause, an infinitive is sometimes omitted when 
it can be supplied from the verb of the main clause ; as : — 

Quds voluit omnes interfecit [sc. interficere], he killed all 
whom he chose [sc. to kill]. 

Tenses of the Infinitive. 

538. In the constructions of indirect discourse (real or 
implied), the tenses of the infinitive represent the action 
as past, present, or future, with reference to the word of 
saying. They correspond to the tenses of the indicative 
as follows : — 

Pres. infin. = pres. indie. 

Perf. " = past " (imperf., perf., or pluper.). 

Fut. " = fut. " 

a. With memirii (and occasionally other words) the present 
infinitive is used to represent an imperfect indicative ; as, hoc 
me memini dicere, I remember saying this, — thus denoting 
a recollection of the progress of an action. If the mere fact 
is remembered, the perfect infinitive is used ; as, meministis 
Trie ita distribuisse causam, you remember I divided the case 
in this way. 

b. Instead of the future infinitive is often used fiiticrum esse 
ut (or fore ut) with a subjunctive, — always when the given 
verb has no future participle. Thus : — 

Nwniquam putavi fore ut supplex ad te venirem, I never 

* Fore is less commonly omitted. 



340 SYNTAX. 

thought I should come to you as a suppliant (Cic, Att., xvi., 
16 c, 10) ; dixit futurum esse ut poscerent, he said they 
would demand. 

539. In other constructions than those of indirect dis- 
course, only the present infinitive is common. The perfect 
is used to denote completed action.* 

a. With verbs of wishing, obligation, etc., the perfect pas- 
sive is found sometimes where the present would seem more 
logical ; as : — . 

Patres vestrl Corinthum exstinctum esse voluerunt, 
your fathers insisted that Corinth should be destroyed (Cic, 
Leg. Man., 5, ll). 

b. In early Latin, and in the poets and later writers, the per- 
fect active is also thus used with various verbs. Thus : — 

Tendentes opaco Pelion imposuisse Olympo, struggling to 
pile Pelion upon shady Olympus (Hor., Carm., iii., 4, 52) ; bac- 
chatur votes, magnum si pectere possit exeussisse deum, the 
prophetess rushes wildly about to try if she can shake off the 
divine influence from her soul (Verg., Aen., 6, 78). 

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 

540. There are four classes of substantive clauses, as 
follows : — 

(1.) Subjunctive clauses introduced by ut, ne, qum> 
etc. (developed from purpose or result). (Cf. 484 fL) 

(2.) Infinitives with subject accusative (indirect dis- 
course). (Cf. 515 ff. and 533 if.) 

(3.) Indirect questions. (Cf. 518.) 

(4.) Indicative clauses introduced by quod = " the 
fact that " (a variety of causal clauses) ; as : — 

Magnum bensficium est naturae, quod necesse est mori, 
it is a great natural blessing that we must die. 

* Especially with expressions like satis habeo,pudet, contentus sum, melius 
erit, etc. 



SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 341 

Which of these kinds of substantive clauses should be used 
with any given verb can generally be determined by considering 
the nature of the thing said, as follows : — 

541. (1.) If the thing- said in the substantive clause 
has the nature of a statement (spoken or thought), an 
infinitive clause is used ; as : — 

Non putabant de tali viro suspicionibus oportere iu- 
dicari, such a man ought not to be judged [they thought] by 
suspicious circumstances. 

(2.) If the thing said involves a reason or explana- 
tory fact) the substantive clause takes quod ; as : — 

Mihl quidem videntur homines hac re maxime helms 
praestctre quod loqui possunt, to me, at least, men seem to 
have the advantage over the brutes in this respect chiefly, that 
they can speak (Cic). 

(3.) If the thing said is a question, the substantive 
clause, as an indirect question, takes the subjunctive ; 
as : — 

Quae esset brevissinia via quaeswit, he asked what was 
the shortest way. 

(4.) If the tiling said has not the nature of any of 
these three things, the substantive clause takes the sub- 
junctive with ut, ne, etc. ; as : — 

Feci non invitus ut prodessem multis rogatu tuo, I 
have been not unwilling to contribute to the advantage of 
many people at your request (Cic, Am., 1, 4) ; ad Appi Claudl 
senectutem accedebat etiam ut caecus esset, to the old 
age of Appius Claudius even blindness was added (Cic, Sen.? 
6, 16). 

Note. Verbs which in their original rise take some particular form of 
substantive clause often acquire shades of meaning' which admit other 
forms. The possible uses with any given verb are best learned from the 
dictionary, and by observing the practice of the Latin writers. 



342 SYNTAX. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

In the use of the Latin participles the following points should 
be noted : — 

542. Participles are followed by the same cases and 
constructions as their verbs. Thus : — 

Quidam, poeta ndminatus, some one, called a poet. 

Catulorum oblita leaena, a lioness forgetful of her whelps 
(Verg., G., 3, 245). 

Faventes rebus Karthaginiensium, favoring the interests 
of the Carthaginians. 

Casus abies visura marmos, a fir tree [which is] to see the 
chances of the deep (Verg., G., 2, 68). 

Horum opera saepe anted tisus, having used their services 
often before. 

543. The present participle denotes something going 
on at the same time as the action of the verb with which 
it is connected. Tbus : — 

Turnum fugientem haec terra videbit, this land shall see 
Turnus fleeing (Verg.). 

a. The action denoted by a Latin present participle must 
belong to exactly the same time as the main action. Only cer- 
tain participles denoting motion — veniens, adveniens, etc. — 
are used with that kind of loose reference to present time which 
the English participle often has. Thus we say, " hearing this 
sound, I ran quickly," where the Roman could not use a present 
participle, but would take some other form of expression ; as, 
quo sonitu audlto currebam celeriter, or cum hunc sonitum 
auclivissem, etc. 

b. The present participle depending upon a verb of saying or 
perceiving is almost equivalent to an infinitive, but is a more 
lively form of expression. See fugientem in the example 
above. 

Cf. Laelium et Scipionem facimus admirantis, I represent 
Laelius and Scipio expressing their wonder (Cic, Sen., 1, 3). 



PARTICIPLES. 343 

544. The perfect participle denotes something already 
finished at the time indicated by the verb with which it is 
connected. Thus : — 

Qui, missus ab Argls, . . . Itala consederat urbe, who, sent 
from Argos, . . . had settled in the Italian city (Verg., Ae., 
10, 779). 

a. The perfect participle of many deponent verbs has almost 
the force of a present participle. So, commonly, arbitratus, 
ratus, solitus, usus, Veritas. Also ausus, commoratus, fisus, 
secutus, and others. 

b. The perfect participle of deponent verbs is sometimes used 
in a passive sense ; as, experta virtus, valor that has been tried. 

Note. Except in the case of deponent verbs, an active perfect parti- 
ciple has to be supplied in Latin by changing the construction to the 
passive (Ablative Absolute), or by a temporal or causal clause (especially 
a clause introduced by cum, postquam, or dum). 

545. The future participle denotes something which 
is to take place after the time indicated by the verb with 
which it is connected. Thus : — 

Magna pars hominum est, quae navigatura de tempestate 
non cogitat, there is a large part of mankind who when on the 
point of taking a voyage do not think about the state of the 
weather. 

a. The future participle thus agreeing with a noun or pro- 
noun is rare in good prose. In the poets and later writers 
(including Livy) it frequently denotes likelihood, intention, or 
purpose. Thus : — 

An sese medios moriturus in hostes inferat, or shall he 
plunge into the midst of the foe, to meet his death (Verg., 
Ae., 9, 398). 

546. The present and perfect participles are often used 
as attributive adjectives (or as nouns), and can even be 
compared, like other adjectives. Thus : — 

TJrbs florentissima, a most flourishing city. 
Vir spectatus, a man proved worthy. 



344 SYNTAX. 

Male part a male dlldbuntur, ill gotten gains slip away in 
the same bad fashion (Cic, Phil., ii., 27, 65). 

Quo paratior ad usum forensem promptiorque esse possim, 
that I may be better prepared and more ready for forensic prac- 
tice (Cic, Caec., 13, 41). 

547. A present or a perfect participle is also often used 
in the sense of a predicate, where in English a clause (or 
phrase) would be found denoting an accompanying cir- 
cumstance, a cause or hindrance, etc. Thus : — 

Sanguis in iotiim corpus distribuitur per vends in omnes 
partes corporis pertinentes, the blood is distributed to the 
whole body, through veins which extend into all parts of the 
body (Cic, N. D., ii., 55, 137) ; Caesar expl5ratis regionibus 
albente caelo omnes copids castris eduxit, Caesar, having re- 
connoitred the country, led all his forces forth from camp as 
day was breaking (Caes., B. C, 1, 68). 

a. This is the regular use of the participle in the ablative 
absolute construction (cf. 422), as in the last example. 

b. Sometimes a participle is made to agree with a noun, when 
the participle itself contains the main idea. In English a noun 
(especially one in " ing ") is used instead of the participle, and 
its relation to the other noun is expressed by " of." Thus : — 

Hae litter ae recitatae magnum luctum fecerunt, the 
reading of this letter caused great grief (Liv.) ; ab condita 
urbe ad Hberatam, from the founding of the city to the estab- 
lishment of the republic [literally, to its freeing] (Liv.). 

Cf. also the use of the gerundive (550, especially d). 

c. Beside its regular use in forming the compound tenses of 
the verb (see 211), the perfect participle is sometimes used with 
habed almost in the sense of the English compound tenses. In 
Latin, however, the two parts of the expression retain their own 
force more distinctly than in English, and the use is chiefly con- 
fined to words of knowing and the like. Thus : — 

Clodl animum perspectnrQ habeo, I have thoroughly in- 
vestigated Clodius's state of mind [literally, I hold it in an 



PAETICIPLE. — GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 345 

investigated condition]. Cf. (Plaut., Cap., 345) transactum 
reddet onuie, he will do the thing up brown [literally, he will 
return it finished], and (in Terence and Cicero) missum facio, 
I let go, dismiss. 

GERUND and GERUNDIVE. 

548. (1.) The gerund is a verbal noun used in the 
oblique cases with the same force which the infinitive 
has as subject (or object) of a verb, and governing the 
cases like any other part of the verb. Its meaning is 
active. 

(2.) The gerundive is a verbal adjective denoting 
necessity, 'propriety, or duty, or, in the oblique cases, tak- 
ing the place of the gerund under certain circumstances. 
In the first of these uses it is passive ; in the second, 
though seemingly passive, it is really, like the gerund, 
active. 

549. Examples of the use of the gerund are as fol- 
lows : — 

Metus parendi sibl, fear of obeying him ; parcendo victls, 
by sparing the conquered ; efferor studio patres vestros . . . 
videndi, I am carried away with a desire to see your fathers 
(Cic, Sen., 23, 83). 

550. Instead of the gerund with an object, in the 
case of transitive verbs the gerundive construction is com- 
monly used ; i. e., the object is put in the case which the 
gerund would have had, and the gerundive is made to 
agree with it. Thus : — 

Consilium scribend.ae epistulae, the purpose of writing a 
letter (Gerund, scribendi epistulam) ; ad defendendam Ro- 
mam ah oppugnanda Capua duces Romanos abstrahit, he 
draws off the Roman generals from the siege of Capua to 
the defense of Rome (Gerund, ad defendendum Romam ab op- 
pugnando Capuam) ; reparandarum classium causa, for 
the sake of repairing the fleets (Gerund, reparandl classes). 



346 SYNTAX. 

a. The gerundive, rather than the gerund, is regularly used 
with the verbs Titor. fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, which in early 
times took the accusative where later usage employed the abla- 
tive. Tims : — - 

Quod ilia aetas mag is ad haeo utenda (rather than ad 
his utendum) idoneast, because that time of life is better 
suited to these employments (Ter., Heaut., 133) ; iustitiae 
fruendae (rather than iustitia fruendi) causa,, for the sake 
of enjoying justice ; hostes in spem potiund5rum castrorum 
(rather than potiundi castas) venerant, the enemy had come 
into the hope of getting possession of the camp. 

b. If ambiguity would arise (through confusion of the gender) 
from the use of the gerundive, the gerund is used. So especially 
when the object is a neuter pronoun or adjective. Thus : — ■ 

Aliquid faciendi ratio, a principle of doing something 
(Cic.) ; artem et vera et falsa diiudicandi, the art of distin- 
guishing the true and the false (Cic). 

c. The genitive of the gerund sometimes occurs with a pos- 
sessive pronoun agreeing with it, rarely also with a noun de- 
pending upon it, where it looks at first sight like a gerundive 
irregularly used. Thus : — 

Quoniamtvl videndi estcopia, since there is an opportunity 
of seeing you [said of a woman] (Plaut.) ; in castra venerunt 
sui purgandi causa, they came to the camp for the sake of 
excusing themselves [lit., of their own excusing] (Liv.) ; ndn 
vereor ne quis me haec vestrl adhortandi causa magnified 
loqul existimet, I am not afraid any one will think I exaggerate 
this to encourage you (Liv., xxi., 41, l) ; exemplSrum eligendi 
potestas, the power of [the] choosing [of] examples (Cic). 

d. The gerund and gerundive represent something as not yet 
completed or accomplished. If something completed is spoken 
of, the perfect participle must be used. Thus : — 

Susptcio regni adpetendi, a suspicion of aiming at royal 
power ; suspicio regni adpetitl, a suspicion of having aimed 
at royal power ; ante conditam condendamve urbem, be- 



GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 347 

fore the founding of the city was accomplished or planned 
(Liv., i.,praef., 6). 

Cases of the Gerund and Gerundive. 

551. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with 
causa (or gratia) * and the accusative of the gerund or 
gerundive with ad are often used to denote purpose. 
Thus : — 

Postremo \_CatiUna~] dissimulandi causa, vel sui expur- 
gandi . . . in senatum venit, finally, for the purpose of hiding 
[the real state of the case] or of clearing himself, Catiline came 
into the senate (Sail., Cat., 31, 4) ; ad castra facienda, for the 
purpose of making a camp (Cic). 

a. The dative of the gerundive is used to express a purpose, 
after names of offices, and words denoting election or appoint- 
ment. Thus : — 

Decemviri legibus scribendis, a commission of ten for writ- 
ing out the laws ; triumviros agro dando creat, he appoints a 
committee of three for assigning land (Liv., 3, 1, 6). 

Note. Otherwise the dative of both gerund and gerundive is rare. 

b. The accusative of the gerund and gerundive (except in 
the use treated under 552, 2) is found only with the prepositions 
ad and (occasionally) ante, in or ob, or (in verse) inter. See 
above examples. 

c. The ablative of the gerund and gerundive is used with 
prepositions, and to denote cause, ma?mer, or instrument. 
Thus : — 

De considatu petendo, in regard to being a candidate for 
the consulship ; currendo et luctando exercere, to exercise 
by running and wrestling. 

Other Uses of the Gerundive. 

552. Besides forming the periphrastic conjugation (see 
229, 2), to denote what must be done, or ought to be 

* These nouns are almost always placed after the genitive because the 
genitive is almost always the more emphatic of the two words (see 585). 



348 SYNTAX. 

done, and serving as a substitute for the gerund (see 550 
and 551), the gerundive is chiefly used as follows : — 

(1.) As an attributive adjective, meaning " worthy of," 
and the like. Thus : — 

\_Prudentia~] quae est rerum expetendarum fugienda- 
Twoaque scientia, prudence, which is the knowledge of things 
to be desired and things to be shunned (Cic, Off., i., 43, 153) ; 
admlranda frugalitas, an admirable frugality (Cic, Deiot., 9, 
26). 

(2.) As a predicate adjective denoting purpose, after 
words meaning to give, deliver, agree for, undertake, re- 
ceive, and some others. Thus : — 

Testamentum tibi tradet legendum, he will hand his will 
to you to read (Hor., Sat., ii., 5, 5l) ; attribuit n5s truel- 
dandos Cethego, he assigned us to Cethegus to be butchered 
(Cic, Cat., iv., 6, 13). 

(3.) The neuter is sometimes used impersonally (espe- 
cially in early Latin and the poets) governing a case. 
Thus : — 

Nunc pacem orandum, nunc . . . arma reponendum 
et bellum exitiale cavendum, now we must beg for peace, 
now lay aside arms and avoid murderous war (Sil.) ; cum suo 
cuique iudiciS sit utendum, since each must use his own 
judgment ; quam nobis quoque ingrediundum sit, [a road] 
which we too must travel (Cic, Sen., 2, 6). 

SUPINE. 

Note. The supine is found in a comparatively small number of verbs. 
For a list of them see Draeger's Historische Syntax, vol. ii., p. 859 ff. 

553. The supine is a verbal noun with active meaning, 
used only in the accusative and ablative, as follows : — 

554. The accusative of the supine is used : — 

(1.) To form the future passive infinitive with iri (see 
211, a). Thus : — 



GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. — SUPINE. 349 

Ait Karthaginem cap turn, in, he says Carthage is going to 
be (or will be) taken. 

Note. Here iri is used impersonally, and the apparent subject of the in- 
finitive is really the object of the supine. 

(2.) With verbs of motion (expressed or implied), to 
denote purpose. Thus : — 

Legati venerunt questum inhirias et res repetitum, 
ambassadors came to complain of wrongs and demand restitu- 
tion (Liv.) ; cubitum discessimus, we parted for the night [lit., 
to lie down] (Cic, Re Pub., vi., 10, 10) ; paerum mlsit roga- 
tum, quid vellet, he sent a boy to ask what he wished. 

a. So metaphorically, dare nuptum, collocare nuptum, give 
in marriage, sessum recipere, offer a seat, perditum Ire, go to 
ruin. 

b. The accusative of the supine is especially rare with an ob- 
ject, as in the first example above. 

555. The ablative of the supine is used in classical 
Latin only as an ablative of specification (see 412), 
chiefly with the adjectives facilis, difficilis ; iucundus, 
iniucundus ; honestus, turpis ; credibilis, incredibilis ; 
mirabilis, utilis, optimus ; and with the nouns fas, nefas, 
opus. Thus : — 

Rem . . . factu. facilem, a thing easy to do (Ter., Heaut., 
704) ; mirabile dictu, wonderful to tell (Verg., G., 2, 30) ; in- 
credibile memoratu, incredible to relate (Sail., Cat., 6, 2) ; hoe 
fas est dictu, this is a right thing to say (Cic, Tusc, v., 
13, 38) ; dictu opus est, it must be said (Ter., Heaut., 941). 

a. The ablative of the following supines occurs in classical 
Latin : auditu, cognitu, dictu, facta, intellectu, inventu, memo- 
ratu, scitu, visit. 

b. In Livy and later writers dignus and indignus occur with 
the ablative of a supine ; as, indignum relatu. 

c. The gerundive with ad is more common with facilis, diffi- 
cilis, and iucundus, and the infinitive is also used ; as, facile 
est invenire, it is easy to find. Dignus takes qui with the 



350 SYNTAX. 

subjunctive in classical Latin, or the ablative of a noun. (Cf. 
also 536, a.) 

The Different Constructions of Purpose. 

556. The following eight ways of expressing PUKPOSE 
are possible in Latin : — 

(1.) Subjunctive with ut or rie. 

(2.) " " a relative. 

(3.) Gerund (or gerundive) with ad. 

(4.) " " " causa {gratia). 

(5.) Accusative of the gerundive. 

(6.) Future participle. 

(7.) Supine. 

(8.) Infinitive. 

a. Of these the subjunctive with ut or qui is the common 
and regular construction (for the distinction between ut and qui 
see 482, 2, note). The gerund and gerundive constructions 
(with ad or causa) are used only in short expressions, and rarely 
if the verb of purpose has any further modifier than an object 
and an adverb of manner. The gerundive without ad or causa 
is used only with the verbs given under 552, 2. 'The future 
participle belongs mostly to late Latin, and is said not to occur 
in Cicero at all. The supine is used only as in 554. The 
infinitive is poetical and not common. (Cf. 536.) 

Adverbs. 

557. Latin adverbs are used, in general, like English 
adverbs, to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

a. The adverbs in -e and -ter (from adjectives of the second 
and third declensions respectively) are usually adverbs of man- 
ner ; as, care, dearly; praecldre, nobly ; auddcter, boldly; levi- 
ter, lightly. 

b. The adverbs in -urn and -im (originally accusatives), are 
usually adverbs of quantity or amount ; as, multum, much ; 
paulum, a little ; partim, partly. They therefore modify verbs 
chiefly. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF PURPOSE. — ADVERBS. 351 

c. The adverbs in -5 (originally ablatives) are usually adverbs 
of degree OF difference ; as, mitlto, by far, much ; paulo, 
(by) a little. They therefore modify adjectives and adverbs 
chiefly. 

Note 1. The last two classes tend to pass into each other, so that the 
difference is sometimes so subtle as to seem wholly arbitrary. Cf . prlmum, 
first (in a series), to begin with, with primo, first (in time), in the first 
place. 

Note 2. Apparent exceptions to the above are the adverbs of emphatic 
assertion, sane, vero, profecto, certo, and others, though generally they are 
adverbs of manner which have lost their original meanings. 

d. Of the words for " so," ita and (more emphatic) sie are 
adverbs of manner, and modify verbs ; tarn is an adverb of de- 
gree, and modifies chiefly adjectives and adverbs. 

e. Ut . . . ita, "as . . . so," are often equivalent to " al- 
though . . . yet " (one member of the comparison being by 
implication a negative). Thus : — 

Ut quids certaminum erat, ita ab apparatu operam . . . 
nihil cessation, though there was a cessation of conflict, yet 
there was no interruption in the construction of fortifications 
(Liv., xxi., 8, l). 

f. With a word or phrase explaining something said, ut is 
sometimes ambiguous. It may be "seeing that," giving a rea- 
son, or " considering that," indicating a limitation, and the con- 
text has to decide. Thus : — 

Epicharmi, acilti nee insulsi hominis, ut Siculi, of Epi- 
charmus, a clever and witty man as [you would expect of] a 
Sicilian (Cic, Tusc, i., 8, 15) ; Spurius Maelius . . . ut illls 
temporihus praedives, Spurius Maelius, a very rich man for 
those times (Liv., iv., 13, l). 

g. Of the words for " not," non indicates simple negation, ne 
negatives commands or purposes, and haud is used with single 
words and phrases, especially adjectives and adverbs. 

h. In Latin an adjective is sometimes used, characterizing 
the person who does a thing (especially his state of mind), 
where English prefers an adverb of manner or order. Thus : — 

Itaque feel non in Vitus, ut prodessem multis tub rogatu, I 



352 SYNTAX. 

have not unwillingly labored at your request for the benefit of 
many (Cic, Am., i., 4) ; quid prudens et sciens ad interitum 
ruis, why do you rush to destruction knowingly and with your 
eyes open ? hostes ran se ostendere coeperunt, the enemy be- 
gan to show themselves here and there ; priori Remo au- 
gurium venisse fertur, an omen is said to have come to Remus 
first. 

i. With words like primus there is a difference of meaning 
according as (1) the adjective agreeing with the subject, or 
(2) the adjective agreeing with the object, or (3) the adverb is 
used. Thus : — 

Ille primus aedem hie posuit, he was the first to build a 
temple here. 

Ille primam aedem hie posuit, he built the first temple here 
[some one else may have built another]. 

Ille primum aedem hie posuit, he first built a temple here 
[and then did something else]. 

Prepositions. 
553. The prepositions originally expressed relations 
of place, and then passed into other relations. 
A synopsis of their use may be given as follows : — 

Prepositions with Accusative. 
559. (1.) Ad, towards, to (opposite of ab). Place: ad 
urbem ire, to go to, or towards, the city ; ad urbem esse, to be 
near the city. Time : ad senectutem, to, or till, old age ; ad 
vesperum, towards evening. Number : ad milia tria,* towards, 
or about, three thousand. Metaphorical relations : ad vitam 
beatam, towards, or with regard to, a happy life ; ad tantum 
bellum, towards, or for, so great a war ; ad me scribere, to write 
to me ; ad oppidum capiendum, towards, or for the purpose of, 
taking the town ; ad voluntdtem meam, according to my wish ; 
ad hunc modum sermo est institutus, the conversation was 
started in this fashion. 

* In the historians and later writers ad is also used as an adverb with 
numbers. Thus: ad duorum milium numerus, a number of about two 
thousand (Caes.). 



PREPOSITIONS WITH ACCUSATIVE. 353 

(2.) Adversus (less commonly adversum) [p. p. of advertere ; 
i. e., ad and vertere, to turn], turned towards, towards, against, 
facing. Place : adversus aegrum, opposite the sick man ; 
adversum speculum, before the mirror. Metaphorically : 
quonam modo me gererem adversus Caesarem, how should I 
have conducted myself towards Caesar ? adversum legem, 
against the law ; impetus adversus montem, an attack against, 
or upon, the mountain. 

(3.) Ante, before (opposite of post). Place (used only with 
objects at rest) : ante aedls, before the house ; ante se, before 
himself ; ante oculos, before one's eyes, or face. Time : ante 
hiemem,* before winter ; ante lucem, before daylight. Meta- 
phorically : ante alias pulcherrima omnls, fair before, or 
beyond, all others ; ante omnia, before, or above, all things. 

(4.) Apud, near (primarily of persons and used only where 
no motion is implied). Apud Caesarem, before Caesar, or at 
Caesar's house ; hoc est apud Graecos prope gloriosius quam 
Romae triumphasse, this is almost more glorious among the 
Greeks than a triumph is at Rome ; bellatum apud Actium, a 
battle was fought at Actium ; magna apud plebem gratia, of 
great influence with the commons. 

(5.) Circum (later also circa), around, about. Place: terra 
circum axem se convertit, the earth revolves around its axis 
(Cic, Acad., ii., 39, 123) ; capillus circum caput reiectus, hair 
thrown back about the head ; circum haec loca, about these 
places ; circa forum, about the forum (Quint.) ; paucae quae 
circum illam essent, the few [attendants] about her (Ter.). 

(6.) Circiter,-\ about (very rare of place and mostly used of 
time). Circiter meridiem, about noon. 

(7.) Citra (more rarely cis), on this side of (opposite of 
ultra). Place : citra Rhenum, on this side of the Rhine ; cis 
Taurum, this side the Taurus mountain. Time (post-classical, 
cis also in Plautus) : cis paucos dies, within a few clays. Meta- 
phorically (post classical) : citra virtutem, without virtue. 

* "Two days before " and similar expressions may be rendered into 
Latin in either of the following- ways: ante (prep.) duos dies; duobus ante 
(adv.) diebus. 

t More common as an adverb. 



354 SYNTAX. 

(8.) Contra, opposite, against. Place : contra Italiam, 
opposite Italy ; contra Massiliam, off Marseilles ; contra 
medium porticum, facing the middle of the portico ; contra 
hostem fossam facere, to make a ditch facing the enemy ; 
ducere contra hostes, to lead against the enemy. Metaphor- 
ically : contra sententiam, contrary to one's opinion ; coniu- 
rationem facere contra Caesar em, to make a conspiracy against 
Caesar. 

(9.) Erga, towards (chiefly of feelings towards persons, and 
generally friendly). Erga ilium benignus, kindly disposed 
towards him ; dwina bonitds erga homines, the divine goodness 
towards mankind ; odium erga regem, hatred towards the 
king ; erga meam saliitem, in regard to my safety (Cic.) 

(10.) Extra, outside of, beyond (opposite of intra). Place : 
extra Peloponnesum, outside of the Peloponnesus ; extra 
provinciam, beyond the province. Metaphorically: extra 
numerum, beyond the number ; extra modum, beyond bounds ; 
extra unum te, except you alone. 

(11.) Infra, on the under side, below (opposite of supra). 
Infra oppidum, below the town; infra infimos homines, be- 
neath the lowest of mankind (Ter.). 

(12.) Inter, between, among. Inter Padum et Alpes, be- 
tween the Po and the Alps ; inter primos, among the first ; 
inter has turbas, in the midst of these disturbances ; inter 
noctem, during the night. 

(13.) Intra, inside of, within (opposite of extra). Intra 
parietes meos, within my walls ; intra annos qiiinaue, within 
five years ; intra centum, less than a hundred. 

(14.) Iuxta, close to, near. luxta eum caslra posuit, he 
pitched his camp close to him ; itixta deos, next to the gods ; 
iuxta seditidnem, next thing to an insurrection. 

(15.) Ob (before, as an obstruction, but mostly used in the 
metaphorical sense " on account of "). Mors ob ocidos versata 
est, death danced before his eyes ; ob stultitiam, on account of, 
or through, folly ; ob earn rem, on that account. 

(16.) Penes, in the possession, power, or hands of. Penes 
eos victoria est, the victory is with them ; penes regem, in the 
king's power. 



PREPOSITIONS WITH ACCUSATIVE. 355 

(17.) Per, through. Place : per forum ire, to go through 
the forum ; per mare, over the sea. Time : per hiemem, 
through the winter ; per indutias, during the truce. Met- 
aphorically : per vos, through your means ; per me licet, 
you may, for all I care ; per ludum, in sport. In assevera- 
tions : per deos, by the gods ; per tuam fidem, by your honor. 

(18.) Pone, behind (rare in classical Latin). Pone me, be- 
hind me ; pone eastra, behind the camp. 

(19.) Post, behind, after (opposite of ante). Place : post 
me, behind me ; post montem, behind the mountain. Time : 
post paacos dies,* after a few days ; post urbem conditam, 
after the founding of the city. 

(20.) Praeter, along by, beyond (most common in the 
metaphorical meanings "beyond," "except," "contrary to"). 
Praeter eastra dueere, to march by, or beyond, the camp ; 
praeter aetatem stultus, foolish beyond his years ; praeter 
spem, contrary to expectation ; praeter imperatds pecunias, 
besides the money ordered ; nulll vestitus praeter pelles, no 
clothing except skins. 

(21.) Prope, near. Prope oppidum, near the town ; prope 
me, near me. 

(22.) Propter, near (but chiefly in the metaphorical sense 
"on account of"). Propter hanc statuam, near this statue; 
propter frigora, on account of the cold ; propter me, on my 
account. 

(23.) Secundum, following, after (participial form from se- 
quor) . Place : Ite secundum me, come after, or behind, me ; 
secundum mare superum, along the upper [Adriatic] sea. 
Time : secundum ludos, after the sports ; secundum hune 
diem, after this day. Metaphorically : secundum deos, 
next to the gods ; secundum naturam, according to nature. 

(24.) Supra, on the upper side of, above (opposite of infra). 
Place : supra t err am, above the earth. Number : supra 
septem milia, more than seven thousand. Metaphorically : 
supra leges, above the laws ; supra humanam fidem, beyond 
what one could believe of man. 

* Or panels post diebus. (Cf. foot-note on p. 353.) 



356 SYNTAX. 

(25.) Trans, across, beyond. Trans mare Ire, to go across 
the sea ; trans Rhenum esse, to be across the Rhine. 

(26.) Ultra, on the farther side of, beyond (opposite of citra). 
Ultra Padum, on the other side of the Po ; ultra pueriles 
annos, beyond the years of boyhood ; ultra moclum, beyond 
the limit. 

Prepositions with Accusative or Ablative. 
560 (1.) In, into (with accusative), in (with ablative) (oppo- 
site of ex). 

a. With accusative (motion implied). Place : in urbem, 
into the city ; in Hispdniam, into Spain ; in caelum, to- 
wards heaven. Time : in multam noctem, till late at night. 
Metaphorically : in perpetuum, for ever ; in aliquem car- 
men scrlbere, to write a poem on somebody ; in liberos indul- 
gentia, indulgence towards one's children ; pietds in deos, piety 
towards the gods ; impetus in castra, an attack upon the camp ; 
in helium ardentes, eager for war. 

b. With ablative (motion not implied). Place: in urbe, 
in the city ; in terra, on the earth ; in contidne, in the assem- 
bly ; in Ms, among these. Time : in adulescentia, in youth ; 
in ed anno, in that year. Metaphorically : in me, in my 
case ; in metu, in fear ; in hoc genere, in this class. 

(2.) Sub, under (opposite of super). 

a. With accusative (motion implied). Place: sub iugum 
mlttere, to send under the yoke ; sub montem accedere, to go 
to the foot of the mountain. Time : sub vesperum, just to- 
wards evening ; sub lucem, just before dawn ; sub haec dicta, 
just after this was said. Metaphorically: sub potestatem 
eius cadere, to fall under his power. 

b. With ablative (motion not implied). Place : sub terra, 
under the earth ; sub vestimentis, under one's clothing ; sub 
monte, at the foot of the mountain. Time : sub ipsa profec- 
tione, just at the start ; sub luce, by daylight. Metaphor- 
ically : sub armls, under arms ; sub regno illlus, under his 
sway ; sub his condicionibus, on these terms. 

(3.) Subter, beneath (rare and mostly poetical). Subter 



PREPOSITIONS WITH ACCUSATIVE AND ABLATIVE. 357 

fastlgia tectl, below the point of the roof ; subter mare, un- 
der the sea ; subter Utore, by [beneath] the shore. 
(4.) Super, above (opposite of sub). 

a, With accusative. Super caput hostium pervenire, to 
come out above the heads of the enemy ; aquila super carpen- 
tum volitdns, an eagle flying over the carriage ; super Bospo- 
rum, beyond the Bosporus ; super epulas, during the feast 
(post-classical). 

b. With ablative (chiefly in the metaphorical meaning 
"about," "concerning"). Super hac re, on this matter; su- 
per ancilld, in regard to the handmaid ; super Priamo rogi- 
tans, asking about Priam. [Very rare in Cicero, and not found 
in Caesar in this use.] 

Prepositions with Ablative. 

561. (1.) Ab {abs, a), away from, from (opposite of ad). 
Place : ab urbe ducere, to march from the city ; a te ablre, 
to go away from you. Time : ab urbe condita, from or after, 
the founding of the city ; ab hora tertia, from the third hour. 
Metaphorically : ab defensione desistere, to cease from the 
defense ; prope ab origine, near \_i. e., not far from] the ori- 
gin ; ab Hid differre, to be different from that ; quartus ab 
Arcesila, fourth from [i. e., after] Arcesilas ; a patre deductus 
ad Scaevolam, taken by my father to Scaevola ; abs te laudarl, 
to be praised by you. 

(2.) Absque, away from, without, except (ante-classical and 
post-classical). Absque paucis syllabis, except a few sylla- 
bles (Gell.). 

Absque is very rare except in Plautus and Terence, where it is used only 
in connection -with the imperfect subjunctive of sum as an equivalent for a 
conditional clause. Thus : — 

Quam fortunatus ceteris sum rebus absque una hac foret, how lucky 
I a'm in everything- else, were it not for this one thing [if it were apart 
from this one thing] (Ter., Hec, 601). 

(3.) Coram (first used as preposition by Cicero), before the 
face of, in presence of. Coram genero meo, in my son-in-law's 
presence ; coram populo, before the people (Hor.). 



358 SYNTAX. 

(4.) Cum, with, in company with (opposite of sine). Cum 
coniugibus et liberis, with their wives and children ; mecum, 
with me ; jpariter cum ortu solis, at sunrise. 

(5.) De, from (between ab and ex), down from. Place : de 
finibus suis exire, to go out from one's boundaries ; de digito 
anulum detrahere, to take a ring from the finger ; de eaeid, 
from heaven. Time : de nocte, by night ; de tertia vigilia, 
in the third watch. Metaphorically : poeta de populo, a 
poet from the people ; de sud adventu, about his arrival ; de 
argentd, in regard to the money ; quid de fratre, how about 
brother ? 

(6.) Ex (e), out of, from (opposite of in). Place: ex op- 
pido Ire, to go out of the town ; e portu, from the harbor. 
Time : ex considatu, from, or after, his consulship ; ex eo tem- 
pore, from that time. Metaphorically : ex te quaerere, to 
ask of you ; ex hoc quaestu, from this profession ; statua ex aere 
facta, a statue made of bronze ; ex mm sententia, in accord- 
ance with my opinion [wishes] ; e re publica, in the interest of 
the state ; e regione, in a straight line. 

(7.) Prae, before, in front of. Place : prae se mlttere, 
to send in front of one's self. Metaphorically (more fre- 
quent) : prae metfc, for fear ; prae magniiudine, in compari- 
son with their size ; prae iaculorum multitudine, on account of 
the number of darts. 

(8.) Pro, before, in front of. Place : pro aede Castor is, 
in front of the temple of Castor ; pr5 castris, before the camp ; 
pro cbntione, before the assembly. Metaphorically : pr5 
patria, in behalf of the country ; pro te, for, or instead of, you ; 
pro beneficils tills, in return for your kindnesses ; pro digni- 
tate sua, in accordance with his own dignity. 

(9.) Sine, without (opposite of cum). Sine te, without you ; 
sine dubio, without doubt ; sine poena, without punishment. 

(10.) Tenus, so far as (stands after its case). Aethiopia 
tenus, as far as Aethiopia ; capido tenus, as far as the hilt. 
(For tenus with genitive, see 431,/.) 

For eases with other parts of speech used like prepositions, see 390, 4, 
391, 1 and 3, and 431, g. r 



CONNECTIVE PARTICLES. 359 

NOTE. Observe the different meanings of the following 1 constructions : — 

Romam to Rome. 

ad Romam to (the neighborhood of) Rome. 

in Romam into Rome. 

Roma from Rome. 

ab Roma from (the neighborhood of) Rome. 

ex Roma from (within) Rome. 



Also: — 



Romae at Rome. 

ad Romam near Rome. 



Conjunctions and Other Connective Particles. 

The following points in the use of connectives deserve 
attention. 

Words for AND (Copulatives). 

562. The three words for " and," et, que, atque (tic), 
are used as follows : — 

(1.) Et is the general connective, meaning simply 
" and ; " as : — 

Cicero et Caesar ; qudlis et quanta sit, of what sort and 
extent it is ; virtus ipsa contemnitur et ostentatio esse dicitur, 
virtue itself is scorned and said to be [mere] display ; multl 
et * praeclart viri, many famous men. 

(2.) Que implies a very close connection, and is at- 
tached to the second of the connected words, or, when it 
connects phrases or clauses, to the first word of the second 
phrase or clause. Thus : — 

Ferro ignique, with fire and sword ; dowii mllitiaeque, at 
home and in the field ; sendtus populusque Bdmdnus ; sic 
ndtura solitdriuni nihil amat semperque ad aliquod tam- 
quam adminiculum . . . adnititur, so nature loves nothing 
solitary, but is always struggling for some support, as it were 
(Cic, Am., 23, 88). 

a. With the prepositions a, ab, ad, apud, ob, sub, que is 

* A connective is thus regularly used between two adjectives agreeing 
with the same noun in Latin, where in English no connective is preferred. 



360 SYNTAX. 

attached to the object rather than to the preposition ; as, a 
meque, and by me ; ob eamque rem, and on that account. 

(3.) Atque ((7c, never used before vowels or h) is 
sometimes used as a simple connective of two words. 
Thus : — 

Bella &G qmce, in war and peace ; in ovini caelo atque terra, 
in all heaven and on earth ; honesta atque inhonesta, things 
right and wrong : minuit ac mollit, lessens and softens. 

But atque («c) is more commonly used to give greater 
prominence to the last one of the connected ideas (=■ t; and 
in fact," ' ; and particularly"). Thus : — 

Res tanta atque tarn atrox, a thing so great and in fact so 
monstrous ; vitium ledum hominum atque faMadum, the vice 
of frivolous and in fact treacherous men ; ad opes tuendas ac 
tenendds, for the guarding and even maintaining his power. 

oi. Atque (ac) is less common than et or que. to connect 
clauses. 

b. Atque (ac) is used after words implying a comparison, in 
the sense of " than " or " as." Thus : — 

Virtus eadem in homine atque deo est. virtue is the same 
in man as in God: vides omnia fere contra, ac dicta sunt, 
evenisse, you see almost everything has come out different 
from what was said: aliter de alils ac de nobis iudicdmus. we 
judge of others otherwise than of ourselves. Cf. the similar 
use of " nor " in vulgar English ; as. " he 's taller nor I be." 

For et and que after neque (nee), see 565, d. 
'" atqul. see 569, 1. 

563. (1.) For " both . . . and," et ... et is the 
regular classical expression. 

a. Que . . . que is chiefly confined to the poets and later 
writers, though also used sometimes in prose when the first 
word is a pronoun ; as. seque remque qjublicam curare, to 
care for himself and the state. Et . . . que, and que . . . 
et. are rarely found. 



CONNECTIVE PARTICLES. 361 

b. Qua . . . qua, and simul . . . simul are also found. So, 
too, modo . . . modo, turn . . . turn, " now this . . . now 
that," tend to pass into the weaker meaning " both . . . and." 

(2.) Cum . . . turn, " both . . . and," " not only . . . 
but also," and lion modo (solum, or sometimes tantum) 
. . . see! (veruni) etiam * throw more stress upon the 
second of the ideas connected. Thus : — 

Qua quid potest esse cum fructu laetius turn adspectu 
jpulchrius ? cuius quidem non utilitas me solum, ut ante 
dtxi, sed etiam cultura et natura ipsa delectat, than which 
[the vine] what can be, not only more luxuriant in fruit, but 
even more beautiful to look at ? I take delight not only in its 
usefulness, but also in the very cultivation of it and study of its 
nature (Cic, Sen., 15, 53). 

a. So also when the first expression or both expressions are 
negative : non modo non, etc., . . . sed etiam, or sed ne . . . 
quidem. Thus : — 

Omnia despicere non modo non laudl verum etiam 
vitio dandum puto, I think that to look down upon everything 
(i. e., from a philosophic height) must be regarded not only as 
no glory, but even as a defect ; ego non mod5 tibi non Iras- 
cor sed ne reprehendo quidem factum tuum, I not only am 
not angry with you, but do not even find fault with what you 
have done. 

b. When the second member contains ne . . . quidem, if the 
predicate of both members is the same, the second non is regu- 
larly omitted in the first member. Thus : — 

Quae n5n modo amico sed ne llbero quidem dlgna est, 
which [servile flattery] is not only not worthy of a friend, but 
not even of a freeman (Cic, Am., 24, 89). 

564. When more than two things are connected, either 
the conjunction is omitted altogether (asyndeton), or it is 
used between each two words. Thus : — 

Cicero, Caesar, Sallustius, or Cicero et Caesar et Sallus- 
tius. 

* Sometimes also aed alone. 



362 SYNTAX. 

a. Sometimes que is attached to the last word of a series 
otherwise unconnected, although in Cicero in such cases (except 
where the last word is alii, ceteri, or the like) there is generally, 
if not always, a closer connection between the last two members 
of the series which makes them a sort of unit in relation to the 
rest ; as, voltus, voces, motus statusque mutantur {Off., i., 
29, 102), where the motions and attitude form one element of the 
series, the other two being the expression of the face and the 
voice. 

b. In Livy and later writers the last two words are sometimes 
connected even by et when the others are unconnected, as is 
done in English. 

c. Asyndeton is especially common with pairs of words which 
together form a sort of whole ; as, equites pedites permlxtl, 
horse and foot all mixed up together ; ventis remis, with wind 
and oar; and in fixed expressions like L. Pisone A. Gabinio 
consulibus ; Iuppiter optimus maxirnus. 

Words for OR (Bisjunotives). 

565. (1.) Of the words for " or," aid and vel are used 
in assertions and negations, an in questions, sive in condi- 
tional statements. 

(2.) A ut indicates that in the nature of the case only 
one of the alternatives is possible ; vel (from volo) indi- 
cates that the choice of the alternative rests with the per- 
son concerned. Thus : — 

Ha-ec aut vera sunt aut falsa, this is either true or false ; 
hie vincendum aut moriendum est, under these circumstances 
we must conquer or die. 

Eiusmodi coniunctidnem tectorum oppidum vel urbem ap- 
pellaverunt, such a combination of buildings they called a town 
or [if you please] a city (Cic. Re Pub., i., 26, 41) ; transfer 
idem ad modestiam vel temperantiam, apply the same thing 
to self-control or self-restraint (Cic, Fin., ii., 19, 60). 

Sed uirum tu amicls hodie an inimleis tuis datum's ce- 
nam ? but are you going to give a dinner to your friends or to 
your enemies on this occasion ? (Plant., Ps., iii., 2, 88). 



DISJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. 363 

Cumque hombii sive natura sive quis deus nihil mente 
praestabilvas dedisset, and that when either nature * or some 
god had given man nothing more excellent than his mind (Cic, 
Sen., 12, 40). 

a. Aut or vel can of course be used in a question when the 
alternative does not apply to the whole question, but only to a 
particular pair of words or phrases in it ; as : — 

Nonne haee necessario aut vera aut falsa sunt ? are not 
these things necessarily either true or false ? 

b. Ve is milder than vel, and is attached like que to the 
second word or phrase ; as : — 

Sine ullls praemiis fructibusve, without any rewards or 
emoluments ; plus minusve, more or less ; bis terve, two or 
three times. 

c. The use of vel, where there is no alternative, in the sense 
of " if you will," " even," is of course adverbial, not conjuncti- 
val. Thus : — 

Nidlaene igitur res sunt seniles, quae vel Infirmis corpori- 
bus aninio tamen administrentur, are there then no occupations 
befitting old men, which, even though their bodies be feeble, 
they can yet carry on with their minds ? (Cic, Sen., 6, 15). 

Vel is especially common in this use with superlatives. 

d. After neque (nee) in Latin an affirmative clause or phrase 
is added with et or que, even when in English " not . . . but " 
is preferred. Thus : — 

Sed nee ilia exstlncta sunt alunturq_ue potius et augentur, 
but that [remembrance] is not destroyed, but rather nourished 
and increased (Cic, Am., 27, 104). 

For neve = " and not " in purpose clauses, see 482, 1. 

Note. As an effective example of the use of different connectives may 
be given the following- sentence from Cicero (Off., i., 25, 86) : — 

Hinc apud Atheniensis mdgnae discordiae, in nostra re publico, non so- 
lum seditiones, sed. etiam pestifera bella civllia : quae gravis et fortis 
civis et in re publico, dlgnus principdtu fugiet atque oderit trddetque se 
totum rex publicae neque opes aut potentiam consectdbitur totamque earn 
sic tuebitur ut omnibus consulat. 

* I. e., nature, if it was she. 



364 SYNTAX. 

Words for BUT (Adversatives). 

566. (1). Sed and (more emphatic) verum are the 
regular adversative conjunctions corresponding to the 
English " but." Thus : — 

Vera died, sed riequiquam, I speak the truth, but to no pur- 
pose. 

Noil quid nobis utile, verum quid necessarium sit, quaeri- 
mus, we are trying to find out, not what is expedient for our- 
selves, but what is necessary. 

(2.) At* marks a contrast more forcibly than sed or 
verum, and especially introduces an objection to a line of 
argument, particularly a supposed objection of an oppo- 
nent. Thus : — 

Magnae divitiae dilabuntur, at ingeni egregia facinora i?n- 
mortdlia sunt, even great riches slip away, but the deeds of a 
noble disposition are immortal ; at memoria minuitur, but 
[you will say] the memory weakens. 

567. Vero, " in fact " (standing regularly second in 
its clause ; see 590, a), contrasts something sharply with 
what has gone before, as certainly true. Thus : — 

Haec sunt leviora, ilia vero gravia atque magna, these 
things are rather trifling, but those are really weighty and great. 

a. So after a supposed case which is not the real one, nunc 
vero or nunc alone = " as it is," introduces the real case. 
Thus : — 

Ille autem, si niehercule hoc, quod agii, numquam anted co- 
gitasset, tamen latrocinantem se interfici mallet quam exsulem 
vivere ; nunc vero, etc., now he, if, by the gods, he had never 
before meditated the move he is now making, would yet prefer 
to be killed in border warfare than to live in exile ; but as it is, 
etc. (Cic, Cat, ii., 7, 16). 

568. Autem is the mildest word for " but," and fre- 
quently marks a transition so slight that in English " how- 
ever," " now," " and," would be employed. Thus : — 

* A form ast occurs in poetry. 



ADVERSATIVES. — ATQUI AND TAMEN. 365 

Croesus hostium vim sese perversuricm putavit, pervertit 
autem siiam, Croesus thought he was going to overthrow the 
power of his foes, but he overthrew his own ; nihil praestabilius 
mihi videtur quam posse dlcendo homines impellere quo veils, 
unde autem veils deducere, nothing seems to me finer than to 
he able by oratory to persuade men to what you will and again 
to draw them away from what you will ; M. Octavius Salonas 
oppugnare Instituit ; est autem oppidum et loci natura et 
colle munltum, Marcus Octavius began to besiege Salonae ; it is, 
by the way, a town fortified by its situation upon a hill. 

a. Parentheses are often, as in the last example, introduced 
by autem. 

b. Ceterum is also used for "but" (lit., as to the rest), es- 
pecially by Livy. Thus : — 

Nondum helium erat, ceterum iam belli causa certamina 
. . . serebautur, there was not yet war, but quarrels were 
already being stirred up with a view to war (Liv., xxi., 6, l). 

Atqui and Tamen. 

569. (1.) Atqul, and yet, must not be confounded 
with aique. It stands only at the beginning of an inde- 
pendent sentence, and asserts emphatically the truth of 
that sentence in spite of what went before it. 

" rem " inquis " inexplicabilem ! " atqui explicanda est, 
"oh inexplicable situation," you say; and yet it must be ex- 
plained. 

(2.) Tamen is the regular word for "yet," "however." 
It does not stand first unless the concessive character of 
the thing said is to be emphasized rather than the thing 
itself. Thus : — 

Pausanias accusatus capitis absolvitur, multatur tamen pe- 
cunia, Pausanias is accused of a capital crime and, though not 
condemned to death, is yet punished by a fine ; quae tametsi 
Caesar intellegeba,t, tamen quam mltissime potest legatos ap- 
pellat, although Caesar understood what this meant, he never- 
theless addressed the ambassadors as affably as possible. 



366 SYNTAX. 

Words for THEREFORE (Rlatives). 

570. Itaque marks a thing as the ACTUAL consequence 
of something which precedes ; igitur and (less common) 
ergo introduce the LOGICAL consequence of an argument ; 
proinde( = "accordingly") is used only with commands 
and exhortations (imperative and subjunctive). Thus : — 

Arisfides aequalis fere fait Themistocli ; itaque cum eo de 
principatu contendit, Aristides was of about the same age as 
Themistocles : therefore he was his rival in aiming at the chief 
magistracy. 

Bestiolae quaedam unum diem vivunt ; ex his igitur hora * 
octava quae mortua est, provecta aetate mortua est, certain ani- 
malculae live but one day ; one of these therefore which dies at 
the eighth hour, dies in advanced age. 

Proinde fae animum tantum habeas quanto opus sit, see 
therefore that you have as much courage as is needed. 

a. Igitur does not often stand first, except in Sallust, Livy, 
and the later writers. 

Words for FOR. 

571. These are nam, namque, enim, etenim. Namque 
and etenim imply a little closer connection than the 
others, and are much less common. Enim is weaker than 
nam, and in classical Latin never begins its clause. 
Thus : — 

Nam maximum omamentum amicitiae tollit, qui ex ea tol- 
lit verecundiam, for he takes away the greatest ornament of 
friendship who takes respect from it (Cic, Am., 22, 82). 

Sw se res habet ; ut enim ndn omne vinum sic non omnis 
natura vetustate coacescit, so the matter stands ; for, as in the 
case of wine, not every disposition grows sour with age (Cic, 
Sen., 18, 65). 

a. Neque enim is much commoner than nam non, and in gen- 
eral the Romans had a fancy for bringing in the negative as 
early as possible. Hence, usually, are found neque, nee umquam, 
etc., rather than et non, et numquam, etc. 



CONNECTIVE PARTICLES. 367 



Quldem, Sane, Vero, Certe, Profecto, Saltern, etc. 

Note. These words are rather adverhs emphasizing the word before 
them, than conjunctions, but their use in connecting- sentences by throwing- 
emphasis upon the first word in their clause makes it easier to understand 
them in connection with the preceding. 

572. Qaidem is the weakest of the above words, and is 
often best rendered in English by putting extra stress of 
voice upon the word before it ; sane and vero give per- 
haps the most emphasis.. Thus : — 

Vim hoc quidem est adferre ; quid enim refert qua me 
rat lone cogatis ? cogitis certe, this is to apply force ; for 
what matters it how you force me ? force me you certainly do 
(Cic, Am., 8, 26). 

Ego vero non gravdrer, si mihi ipse confiderem, I certainly 
should make no objection if I had confidence in myself (Cic, 
Am., 5, 17). 

Profecto negare non potes, surely you cannot deny it (Cic, 
Verr., ii., 18, 44). 

Eripe mihi hune dolor em ant minue saltern, take this grief 
from me or at least alleviate it (Cic, Att., ix., 6, 5). 

a. Equidem is used, as a rule, rather than quidem, if the parti- 
cle is to be connected with an ego (expressed or implied) ; as : — 

Id equidem ego certo scio, that I know for sure (Plaut., 
Bacc, iii., 3, 3) ; " nihil" inquit " equidem novi," " I know 
nothing about it," he says (Cic, Div., i., 6, 11). 

But : Ex me quidem nihil audire potuisses, you could 
have heard nothing from me (Cic, iV. D., i., 21, 57). 

Equidem is, however, occasionally used with the second and 
third persons. 

b. Ne . . . quidem, " not . . . even," " not . . . either," takes 
the emphatic word or words between its parts. (Cf. 563, 
2, a.) 

c. St quidem corrects a previous statement, and is equivalent 
to " that is, if ; " as : — 

A pud Graecos antiquissimum est genus poetarum, si qui- 
dem Homerus fuit ante Romam conditam, among the Greeks 



368 SYNTAX. 

poets are a very ancient class — that is, if Homer lived before 
the founding of Rome. 

Etiam and Quoque. 

573. Etiam, even, also, generally stands before the 
word or phrase which it emphasizes ; quoque* also, even, 
always after the word it emphasizes, or second in the 
clause when it applies to it as a whole. Thus : — 

Iilstitiam qui tollunt, etiam adversus deos impii iudi- 
candi sunt, those who do away with justice are to be judged 
disloyal even towards the gods. 

Qua tempestate Karthaginienses pleraeque Africae imperi- 
tabant, Cyrenenses quoque magrii fuere, at the time when 
the Carthaginians ruled most of Africa, the Cyrenaeans also 
were great (Sail., Jug., 79, 2). 

a. Et is rarely used for etiam in classical prose, except with 
certain particles, nam,, quin, seel, sic, simul, verum, etc., and 
with the demonstrative pronouns or ipse ; as : — 

Et illud. videndum quanto magis homines mala fugiant, 
quam sequantur bona, we must notice this also, how much 
more men shun the wrong than they pursue the right (Cic, 
Part, dr., 26, 90). 

In Aequos transiit et ipsos helium molientes, he marched 
over into the land of the Aequi [who were] themselves planning 
war (Liv., vi., 2, 14). 

Interrogative Particles. 
Single Questions. 

574. Ne is always used to ask questions simply for in- 
formation, and does not show whether an affirmative or a 
negative answer is expected. It is always attached encliti- 
cally to an emphatic word in its clause, usually to the first 
word (i. e., the most emphatic one). Thus : — 

Visne fortunam experiri? do you want to try fortune? 
omnisne peeunia soluta est ? is all the money paid ? 

* Not to be confused with quoque (ablative of quisque, each). 



INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. 369 

a. Ne can be attached to any kind of word except preposi- 
tions of one syllable. Cf. in nostrane potestate, in our power? 
(Cic, Fin,, ii, 32, 104). 

b. Sometimes the context or the situation shows whether an 
affirmative or a negative answer is expected, especially with 
words of thinking or perceiving. Thus : — 

Videsne abunddre me otio, do you not see that I have 
plenty of leisure ? (Cic, Tusc, ii., 11, 26) ; ubi tua aut qualis 
potesne dicer e, can you say where or what your own [mind 
is] ? (Cic, Tusc, i., 27, 67). 

c. Ne is occasionally appended to another interrogative word ; 
as, uterne, utrumne, quantane, numne. 

d. In the dramatic and other poets vin ? viden ? satin ? etc, 
are often found for visne ? videsne ? satisne ? etc. 

575. Nonne is used to introduce a question to which 
an affirmative answer is expected. Thus : — 

Canis nonne lupo similis est, is not a dog like a wolf ? 

a. So also neinone, nihilne, numquamne, nusquamne. 

b. Nonne is not used by Plautus and is very rare in Terence, 
the simple ne being used instead. Cf. 574, b. 

576. JYum is used to introduce a question to which a 
negative answer is expected. Thus : — 

Num. 2) utds me tarn dementem fuisse ? do you imagine that 
I was so mad ? 

577. Sometimes questions expressing wonder or disap- 
proval are put without any particle ; as : — 

Rogas ? you ask ? can you ask ? tu id nesciebas ? you did n't 
know it ? Archiam ego non diligam ? shall I not esteem Archias ? 

578. An is used to introduce a single direct ques- 
tion (1) when it implies a supposed answer to a previous 
question, or (2) when it strengthens a previous statement 
by hinting that the thing suggested in the question is in- 
conceivable. Thus : — 

(1.) Quid ad me venitis ? an speculandi causa, why come 
ye to me ? for the purpose of spying ? 



370 SYNTAX. 

(2.) Oratorem Irascl minime decet ; an tibi irasci turn 
videtur cum quid in causis vehementius dicit, it is not at all 
becoming for an orator to give way to wrath ; or does he per- 
haps seem to you to give way to wrath when he says something 
violently in pleading a case ? 

579. In indirect questions ne and num are used without 
appreciable difference ; nonne implies the answer "yes." 
Thus : — 

Quaeritur, idemne sit pertinacia et perseverantia, the ques- 
tion is, whether persistence and perseverance are the same. 

Homarii speciddbantur, num sollicitdti animt sociorum ab 
rege Persed essent, the Romans were trying to find out whether 
the feelings of their allies had been alienated by king Perseus. 

Quaes ierds ex me, nonne putarem inventri verum potuisse, 
you [had] asked me whether I did not think the truth might 
have been found out. 

a. The phrases haud scid an, nescio an, dubito an, are apt to 
imply an affirmative answer, and are thus often equivalent to 
the English " I am inclined to think." Thus : — 

Aristotelem haud scio an reete dixerim principem philo- 
sophorum, I am inclined to think I could justly call Aristotle the 
chief of philosophers. 

b. Forsitan (i. e., fors sit an) always takes the subjunctive in 
good prose ; as, forsitan quaeratis, qui iste terror sit, per- 
haps you ask, what that alarm is (Cic, Rose. Am., 2, 5). For- 
tasse takes the indicative. 

Disjunctive Questions. 

580. Disjunctive or double questions (whether 
direct or indirect) are introduced by utrum . . . an, or 
ne, (num) . . . an, or by an alone with the second member, 
the first having* no particle. Thus : — 

Utrum nescts quam alte adscenderis an pro nihilo idputas, 
do you not know how high you have climbed, or do you count it 
as nothing ? 






DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS. 371 

Momamne veniam, an hie maneam, an Arpinum fugiam ? 
shall I go to Rome, or stay here, or fly to Arpinum ? perquiritur, 
virtus suamne propter dignitatem an propter fructum ali- 
quem expetatur, the question [for our exhaustive discussion, 
per~\ is, whether virtue is desired for its own worth or for some 
reward. 

Postrema syllaba brevis an longa sit, in versu nihil refert, 
it makes no difference in verse whether the last syllable is short 
or long. 

a. In short, sharp indirect questions of two members, ne is 
sometimes used with the second member, the first having no 
particle. Thus : — 

Datames experlrl voluit verum f alsumne sibi esset relatum, 
Datames wished to see whether a true or a false report had 
been brought to him. 

b. For an occasionally anne is used ; as : — 

Quaerendum est, utrum una species sit anne plures, we 
much ask whether there is one species or several. 

c. Real disjunctive questions must be carefully distinguished 
from single questions, which involve alternatives in points of 
detail merely. In these last, not an but aut or vel is used. 
Thus, in quid ergo ? solem dicam aut lunam aut caelum deum, 
the question is, whether such things as the sun and moon and 
sky are to be called gods ; but in solem dicam an lunam an 
caelum deum, the question is, to which one of the three the 
name of god is to be given. (Cf. 565, 2, a.) 

581. If the second member of a disjunctive question is 
negative, it is introduced by annon or by necne. Annon 
is more common for direct questions, necne for indirect. 
Thus : — 

Isne est, quern quaero, annon, is that the man I am look- 
ing for or not ? 

Di utrum sint necne sint, quaeritur, the question is whether 
there are or are not gods. 



372 SYNTAX. 

YES and NO. 

582. The answer to a question in Latin is regularly 
given by repeating its emphatic word for affirmation, and 
by repeating that word with non for denial. Thus : - — 

Mene vis ? te. Do you want me ? Yes. 

JSstne f rater intus? non est. Is brother at home ? No. 

a. Sometimes also an affirmative answer is given simply by 
ita, ita vero, iia est, etiam, seine, qiddem, certe. or maxime ; 
a negative answer by non, non ita. non vero, or minims. 

b. Immo and immo vero give a strong affirmative answer to 
a question in which some doubt is latent, or contradict strongly 
a negative question. Thus : — 

2s on igitur praestat jpatria omnibus officiis ? immo vero, 
is not then patriotism more important than all other relations 
of duty ? Yea, verily. 

Num Sulla Romae fuit ? immo longe afuit, was Sulla at 
Rome ? On the contrary, he was far away. 

Interjections. 

583. The interjections are rather exclamatory sounds 
than words in the proper sense, and have no syntax. The 
chief Latin interjections are as follows : — 

a ! (ah !) ah ! eu ! well done ! 

aha! ah! aha! euge ! bravo! good! 

apage ! be gone ! euax I hail ! (used by Plautus 

atatf (atatte! atatatae ! etc.), only). 

oh ! alas ! lo ! eu hoe ! hail ! 

au ! oh ! ha ! (hahae ! ha ! ha ! ha !) 

ecce ! lo ! behold ! hold ! ho ! 

ehem ! ha ! what! hei t (ei /) woe ! ah me ! 

eheu ! alas ! hem ! (em !) oho ! indeed ! 

eho I (ehodum !) ho ! holloa ! alas ! 

eia I (heia /) ah ! indeed ! hea ! oh ! oh ! alas ! 

en ! lo ! behold ! heus ! ho there ! say ! 



INTERJECTIONS. — ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 373 

hui ! hah ! ho ! oh ! phu ! (fu !) foh ! fugh ! 

id ! ho ! hurrah ! hail ! phy ! pish ! tush ! 

malum! the deuce ! pro! {proh /) oh! 

o! (oh!) 0! oh! ah! st ! hush! whist! 

ohe ! ho ! holloa ! tatae ! strange ! so ! 

oho ! oho ! aha ! vae ! woe ! alas ! 

oi ! oh me ! alas! vah! (vaha!) ah! alas! 
papae ! strange ! 

a. Of these o, ecce, ehem, en, papae, tatae, vah, express as- 
tonishment; euhoe, euax, id, express joy or ecstasy; ehen, 
hex, heu, oi, vae, express sorrow ; eho, ehodum, heus, ohe, are 
used to call attention; eia, euge, heia, express praise; pro, 
proh, are used in asseveration. 

b. To the interjections may be added the mild oaths : Eccere, 
by Ceres ! Ecastor, by Castor ! gracious ! Edepol, or Pol, by 
Pollux ! gad ! mehercide, (hercle, etc.), by Hercules ! thunder! 
me dius fidius, by Jove ! and the expressions Di meliora 
(duint), God forbid! (lit., give better things); DI vostram 
fidem, Heavens ! (lit., O gods, [I appeal to] your honor) ; pro 
deorum ataue hominum fidem, heavens and earth ! pro di 
immortelles, by the immortal gods ! peril, oh dear ! (lit., I am 
ruined), etc. 

c. Here may also be mentioned the affirmative particle ne, 
verily (not to be confused with the negative ne). It is used 
only with personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns or 
adverbs. Thus : — 

Ne ego homo infelix ful, verily I was an unlucky being 
(Plaut., Am., i., 1, 172). 

Arrangement of Words {Ordo verbormri). 

Note. One of the most important differences between Latin 
sentences and English sentences is the way in which the words 
are arranged. In English ordinarily the subject comes first 
(an adjective which modifies it standing, however, before it), 
the verb next, then the object, and so on. The lack of case- 
endings makes such an arrangement necessary in order to tell 



374 SYNTAX. 

how the words are related to each other. In Latin, on the 
other hand, the gender, number, case, mood, tense, etc., of the 
words are shown by their endings simply, and their order is 
used for another purpose, namely : — 

584. In Latin sentences the words are arranged chiefly 
to show which are the more emphatic ones, i. e. (roughly 
speaking), which would receive greater st7*ess of voice in 
English. 

585. This arrangement is based upon the very simple 
principle that the first word in any combination is more 
emphatic than the second, the second more emphatic than 
the third, and so on. Thus : — 

Bonus vir means " a good man," vir bonus means " a good 
max ; " latrant canes means " dogs bark," canes latrant 
means " dogs bark." 

In the same way, Gallos Caesar vicit means " Caesar con- 
quered the Gauls ; " and verberat erudeliter servos means 
" he is beating the slaves cruelly" 

Note 1. When the expression becomes longer and more 
complex the shades of relative emphasis are too numerous and 
too fine to be at all adequately expressed by stress of voice, 
but a little practice in reading Latin so as to understand it 
without translating enables one to feel the force and delicacy 
of the emphases indicated by the word-arrangement. The pupil 
should accustom himself thus to feel the differences in arrange- 
ments like the following : — 

(1.) Omnes heri Romam venimus. 
Heri Romam omnes venimus. 
Romam omnes heri venimus. 
Venimus heri omnes Romam. 

(2.) Hi pueri facile Latine scribunt. 
Pueri hi Latine facile scribunt. 
Scribunt facile hi pueri Latine. 
Latine facile scribunt hi pueri. 
Facile hi pueri scribunt Latine. 



ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 375 

(3.) Fortis miles numquam tergum vertet. 
Numquam miles fortis tergum vertet. 
Tergum fortis miles numquam vertet. 
Vertet numquam fortis miles tergum. 

Note 2. In all except the very simplest sentences, some of the words 
are used as single units in the sentence, others are grouped in phrases, and 
these last have more complicated relations of emphasis ; for instance, a 
relation to the other words of their own phrase and a relation to the sen- 
tence as a whole. Now it is chiefly the relation of emphasis which a word 
has to its own phrase that we mark by stress of voice in English. There- 
fore for the English-speaking student of Latin it is especially necessary 
to observe how the words are grouped in phrases ; also to notice that the 
emphasis of a phrase may be increased by separating its words from each 
other, because then the attention has to be held over from the first word of 
the phrase until its last word arrives to complete it. Compare the ar- 
rangements in groups (2) and (8) above. 

The following practical rules on points of detail may be given : — 

586. In combinations of a noun and an adjective the 
noun comes first, unless the adjective is distinctly em- 
phatic* 

587. Adjective pronouns (rneus, alius, hie, ille, 
etc.) are more often found before their nouns, because 
when used at all they are oftener emphatic than not. 

* The following considerations will make the reason for this rule clear : 
In such an expression as ' ' dogs bark ' ' there are two contrasts latent, a 
contrast between dogs and other animals and a contrast between barking 
and other actions. If we emphasize ' ' dogs, ' ' we bring the one contrast 
more sharply before the hearer's attention; if we emphasize "bark," we 
do the same by the other contrast. In expressions, however, consisting of 
a noun and an adjective, there are further possibilities. If we say ' ' a 
brick house," we do, as before, contrast sharply a brick house with some 
other kind of house ; but if we say "a brick house" while we may mean 
thus sharply to contrast a house of brick with other buildings of brick, we 
may also mean simply to mark the complex idea " brick house " as a single 
thing which we make the subject of our thought. There is a subtle con- 
nection between our word accent and stress of voice which makes us utter 
the word " house " in this last case somewhat more forcibly than the word 
"brick," and the Roman did the analogous thing in putting the noun be- 
fore the adjective in such cases. When there is a doubt about the proper 
position in any given ease, it will be found that if the adjective is put first, 
not belonging there, the effect is one of over-emphasis (turgid rhetoric). 



376 SYNTAX. 

588. Adverbs are apt to be more emphatic than the 
verbs, participles, or adjectives which they modify, and 
therefore rather more commonly stand before them. 

589. Prepositions regularly stand just before their 
nouns, or with an adjective or genitive intervening. (But 
see 431, d and e.) 

590. Conjunctions and other connectives stand be- 
tween the words or clauses which they connect. 

a. The following words stand after the word which they em- 
phasize, or occupy the second place in a clause when they apply 
to it as a whole (hence they are called post-positive) : — 

autem, but, besides, and. quidem, in fact. 

enim, for. quoque, also, even. 

igitur, therefore, then. vero, in truth, but. 

interim, meanwhile. 

b. Que, and (and ve, or *), are attached enclitically to the 
second of two words which they connect, and, when they con- 
nect phrases or clauses, to the first word of the second phrase or 
clause. Thus : — 

Plus minusve, more or less ; senatus populusque Ro- 
manics, the senate and people of Rome ; corpora curare eos iussit 
seque paratos ad omnia habere, he bade them take rest and re- 
freshment and be ready for any development of affairs. 

591. Kelative and interrogative pronouns, besides 
their pronominal functions, also serve as connectives, and 
therefore stand first in their clauses (sometimes with a 
preposition before them). 

592. The vocative case generally, and the verb in- 
qnam always, stand after one or more words. 

593. A word may often be made particularly emphatic 
by being put even before the particle or pronoun which in- 
troduces a sentence. Thus : — 

Haeo cum Caesarl nuntiata essent, legatos ad se venire ius- 
sit, when this was reported to Caesar, he ordered the ambassa- 
dors to come to him. 

* Cf . also the interrogative ne, 574. 



THE PERIOD. 377 

The Period (Periodus). 

594. By a period is usually meant a sentence consist- 
ing of a main clause and one, or, generally, several subor- 
dinate clauses, in which the parts are gracefully balanced 
and the sense is not completed until the end. But any 
sentence in which complete sense is not made until the 
last word is reached may be called a periodic sentence. 

595. The verb, from its nature, makes complete sense, 
unless some word before it indicates the contrary ; and 
therefore in a periodic construction the verb tends to stand 
last, 

a. In dependent clauses this tendency of the verb to stand 
last is very much stronger than in independent clauses. 

Note. The Romans were especially fond of a more or less complete 
periodic structure of sentences in connected writing-. This is only another 
way of saying- that it was a Roman habit of thought to put the least em- 
phatic part of a statement into verb form.* 

596. (1.) It follows from the tendency to a periodic 
structure that in Latin almost all kinds of subordinate 
clauses more commonly stand before their main clause ; 
but : — 

(2.) Result clauses generally, causal and relative 
CLAUSES not uncommonly, and others sometimes, come 
after the main clause. 

a. The difference between a periodic and a non-periodic 
structure of sentence may be seen in the following : — 
Periodic Scipio, ut Hannibalem ex Italia deduceret, exer- 

citum in Africam traiecit. 
Non-periodic Scipio in Africam traiecit exercitum, ut Han- 
nibalem ex Italia dtduceret. 

Note 1. It is a very common form of period to begin the sentence thus 

* The proportion of sentences with the verb last in Cicero is somewhat 
more than fifty per cent, in Caesar about seventy-five per cent, and in 
Latin prose in general rather less than sixty per cent. 



378 SYNTAX. 

with some word belonging- to the main clause, then to insert the subordi- 
nate clause or clauses, and finally to bring in the rest of the main clause 
with its verb standing last. This is, in fact, the kind of sentence to which 
the name " period " most properly applies, periodus being the Greek word 
ireploSos (TTtpi, round, 6Sos, way, road) = Latin ambitus, a going round, 
i. e., a coming back to the starting-point. 

Note 2. The heaping of finite verbs at the end of a period should be 
avoided. Generally there is an infinitive or other close modifier of the 
main verb which emphasis allows to be kept for the last place but one, 
thus separating the verb of the dependent clause from the main verb, 
which closes the period. 

Note 3. The fondness of the Romans for simplicity and directness 
created in their speech a certain tendency to make the most emphatic part 
of their thought also grammatically the subject of the sentence, — in other 
words, the emphatic word (occupying the first place in the sentence) is a 
little oftener the subject than not. The common doctrine, however, which 
teaches that the regular order for a Latin sentence is " subject first and 
verb last," is erroneous, and besides causing various misconceptions in 
points of detail gives the learner a very un-Latin mechanical style. While 
it is true that of the sentences which have a subject expressed about fifty- 
two per cent have the subject first, and about fifty-seven per cent have 
the verb last, only about thirty-four per cent have both subject first and 
verb last. In those sentences, furthermore, which have no subject ex- 
pressed, the verb comes last only about fifty-eight times out of a hundred. 

597. (1.) In historical narrative, philosophical expo- 
sition, and other continuous writing, successive sentences 
are more closely united into a series in Latin than in 
English. 

(2.) This is done largely by choosing as the most em- 
phatic word to be placed first in each sentence one that 
refers (especially by way of contrast) to something men- 
tioned in the latter part of the previous sentence. Ex- 
amples are : — 

Sed quis ego sum out quae est in me facultas ? doctorum 
est ista consuetudo eaque Graecorum, ut its ponatur de quo dis- 
putent quamvis subito, hut who am I or what skill is there in 
me ? To the trained philosophers, and those, too, Greek philo- 
sophers, belongs that habit of allowing a question to be set them 
for discussion on the spur of the moment (Cic., Am., 5, 17). 



ANAPHORA AND CHIASMUS. 379 

Qua re sibi habeant sapientiae nomen et invidiosum et ob- 
scurum ; concedant ut viri boni fuerint. Ne id quidem 
facient : negabunt id nisi sapienti posse concedi, therefore let 
them keep for themselves the invidious and vague word " phi- 
losopher," but grant that these people were good men. They 
will not do even this : they will say it cannot be granted of any 
one but a philosopher (Cic, Am., 5, 18). 

Sollemne adlatuni ex Arcadia instituisse Pana vener antes 
. . . quern Romani deinde vocaverunt Inuum. Huio dedi- 
tis ludicro, cum sollemne notum esset, insidiatos ob Irani 
praedae auussae latrones, cum JRomidus vl se defendisset, 
Remum cepisse, captum regl Amulio trddidisse, ultro ao- 
cusantes. Crimini maxima dabant, etc., he had established 
a sacred festival brought from Arcadia, consisting of certain 
rites performed by young men in honor of Pan, whom the 
Romans afterwards called Inuus. Since this was a well known 
event, the robbers, who were full of rage at the loss of their 
booty, made a plot to attack [the shepherd boys] while busied 
with the festival. Romulus succeeded in defending himself, but 
they took Remus, and, having taken him, handed him over to 
king Amulius with a gratuitous accusation. Their main charge 
was, etc. (Liv., i., 5, 2-3). 

Anaphora and Chiasmus. 

598. The Romans had also a great fancy for antitheses, 
or the setting off against each other of the corresponding- 
parts of two expressions or statements. 

(1.) When the corresponding parts of two or more 
phrases, clauses, or sentences stand in the same order, 
the arrangement is called anaphora.* 

(2.) When the corresponding parts stand in opposite 
orders, the arrangement is called chiasmus, or the chias- 
tic order. Thus : — 

* From the Greek avacpepci), bring 1 up ; hence, the repeating of the order. 



380 SYNTAX. 

Anaphora. Chiasmus. 

Quid dicam de moribus facil- Aeque iucunda erit simpli- 

limis, de pietate in matrem, citas dissentientis quam com- 

liberalitate in sorores, boni- probantis auctoritas (Plm., 

tate in suds, iustitia in Ep., iii., 4, 9). 

omnes? (Cic, Am., 3, ll). Si hostium fuit ille sanguis, 

Ita recta ingenia debilitat summa militum pietds ; nefd- 

verecundia, perversa confir- rium scelus, si civium (Cic, 

mat audacia (Plin., Up., iv., 7). Phil., xiv., 3, 6). 

a. When alter . . . alter are used, referring to two things 
already mentioned, they are usually arranged chiastically ; 
as : — 

In quo quid potest esse malt, cum mors nee ad vivos per- 
tineat nee ad mortuos ? Alterl nulli stmt, alteros non 
attinget, but in this what evil can there be, since death concerns 
neither the living nor the dead ? The one have no existence, 
and it will not touch the others (Cic, Tusc., i., 38, 9l). 

Note. In chiasmus the balanced phrases consist usually of only two 
terms each, and the name comes from the resemblance to the Greek letter 
X (chi), suggested by the criss-cross arrangement. 

Cektain Minor Points of Order. 

599. Certain minor points with regard to the arrange- 
ment of the sentence deserve notice, as follows : — 

a. The more rhetorical writers, esj)ecially Cicero, were careful 
to make their sentences euphonious and rhythmically smooth. 
This they accomplished by choosing * words which in the posi- 
tions required by their relations of emphasis produced a pleasing 
variety by their alternations of long with short syllables and of 
accented with unaccented parts, and also by paying particular 
attention to the end of the sentence. 

Cicero declares himself especially fond of certain cadences 
at the end of a sentence ; namely, _ ^ _ (cretic), as, postu- 
lant ; -vw (dactyl), as, reximus ; _ww-^ (1st paeon with 

* Not by changing the order, as if the Romans thought their sentences 
out in words first, and afterwards settled the order. 



MINOR POINTS OF ORDER. 381 

a trochee or spondee), as, esse videatur ; and, above all, 
- v - v (doable trochee), as, comprobavit. On the other hand, 
the rhythm _ w ^ _ w (dactyl and spondee, i. e., the ending of a 
regular hexameter verse), was rather avoided ; as, degere possit. 
It should be observed, however, that a false emphasis is never 
allowed for the sake of a more rhythmical ending. 

b. The enchases of the early part of a sentence are often 
fixed by the logical sequence of the ideas in their relation to the 
previous sentence, but towards the end the distinctions of em- 
phasis are less sharp, and it frequently depends on the mere 
choice of the writer from which of two or three slightly differ- 
ent points of view the closing ideas shall be presented. 

c. Not infrequently the verb occupies the last place but one 
in the sentence. The commonest cases are (1) when the verb 
stands between a noun and a modifying adjective or genitive, 
(2) when the verb precedes an infinitive which depends upon 
it, (3) when the subject of the verb is kept for the last place. 
Thus : — 

(1.) Ut ulla intermissio fiat offici (Cic, Am., 2, 8). 
(2.) Quanta's vix queo dicere (Cic, Am., 6, 22). 
(3.) Ne te... disserentem deficiat oratio (Cic, Re Pub., 
I, 23, 37). 

Note. Sometimes there is an evident gain in emphasis in thus making 
the verb a little more prominent than the other word, but sometimes the 
difference in emphasis is so slight that the arrangement seems rather to 
have been made for euphony. Thus, in the last case above, the difference 
in emphasis is easily appreciable according as deficiat oratio or oratio defi- 
ciat is written ; in the second case it is less easy to feel an emphasis on 
queo ; in the first case the shade of emphasis is intangible, but the rhetorical 
effect of the separation of intermissio and offici is very distinct. 

d. The difference between the ordinary accent of English 
and of Latin sentences sometimes tends to make a Latin empha- 
sis seem unnatural to us, especially at the end of a sentence. 
For so far as we mark emphasis by position at all, the last place 
in our sentences is the most emphatic. 

Note 1. Such cases occur chiefly — 

(1.) In carefully balanced pairs of sentences where all the words are 



382 SYNTAX. 

forcible, as in the second example of anaphora (598) above. Thus : ita 
recta ingenia debilitat verecundia, perversa confirmat auddcia, Here there 
are three pairs of contrasts, and it is difficult to see that one is stronger 
than another, except that an English accent tends to make us give the 
contrast between verecundia and auddcia a little more force than the others. 
To the Roman, however, so far as there was a difference it was in favor 
of the contrast between recta ingenia and perversa. 

(2.) In a similar single sentence, where the last word has a certain em- 
phasis, though the words before it are still more emphatic ; as, ex tribus 
prlmls generibus, longe praestat, med sententid, regium (Cic, Me Pub., i., 45, 
69). The proper relative emphases here can be expressed roughly by trans- 
lating thus : ' ' The royal is in my opinion BY FAR the best of the 
FIRST THREE KINDS." 

(3.) When the last word is a proper name. Thus, the sentence tantum 
abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles dc morosi simus, ut nobis non 
satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Cic, Or., 29, 104), means " so far am I from 
admiring my own efforts that I am critical and exacting to such a degree 
that Demosthenes himself does not SATISFY ME." At first sight the 
meaning might seem to be "that I am not satisfied with Demosthenes 
HIMSELF," but the Latin order for that would be ut ipse Demosthenes 
nobis non satisfaciat.* 

* In thus giving a different explanation from the usual one of passages 
like the two last quoted, I regret that it would take too much space to set 
forth here the reasons for my opinion. A study of very many instances 
has convinced me that this opinion is correct. It is, of course, inherently 
possible that the last word in the cases given should be the most emphatic, 
and tradition has made it seem more natural to regard them so ; but when 
I put the following arrangements beside each other : — 

longe praestat med sententid regium ; 

regium med sententid longe praestat ; 

ipse Demosthenes nobis non satisfacit ; 

nobis non satisfacit ipse Demosthenes, 
and find in Cicero near this last order the following : — 

itaque se purgdns iocdtur Demosthenes, 
where nobody makes "Demosthenes" the emphatic word, and, on the 
other hand, 

ut Aeschinl ne Demosthenes quidem videdtur Attice dicere, 
and cum etiam Demosthenes exagitetur ut putidus (Or., 8, 26 and 27), 
I cannot believe that so practical a people as the Romans used the dif- 
ferent arrangements only for the sake of variety, nor can I find any better 
explanation than the one suggested. 



VERSIFICATION. 383 

Note 2. So also an emphasis is sometimes repeated for rhetorical effect 
where an alternation of emphasis would seem more natural to us. Thus : — 

Qualis, ut arbitror, nemo umquam erit, vt confirmdre possum, nemo 
certe fuit (Cic, Am., 3, io) ; nam pluriinura fide, plurimum veri- 
tate, plurinium intellegentia praestat (Plin., Ep., iii., 2, 3). 

Here the Roman mind is concentrated for the moment on the given 
expressions as individual phrases, while we are inclined to think rather of 
their relation to each other as parts of a whole. Sometimes, however, we, 
too, should repeat the emphasis as the Roman does. Thus : — 

Qua re quod dandum est amicitiae, large dabitur a me, ut tecum agam, Servl, 
non secus dc si meus esset frdter, qui mihi est cdrissimus, isto in loco ; quod 
tribuendum est officio, Jidei, religioni, id ita moderdbor ut meminerim, me 
contra amici studium pro amid periculo dicere, ... so as to remember 
that though it is a friend whose desire I oppose, it is also a friend whom 
my speech tries to shield from danger (Cic, Mux., 4, 10). 



VERSIFICATION (Versificatio) . 

600. In poetry, unlike prose, the words are marked off 
into regular divisions of time, called feet (pedes). A 
combination of a fixed number of feet constitutes a line 
or verse (versus). 

601. The unit of measurement is the quantity or dura- 
tion of one short syllable or one MORA. (See 26, a.) 

602. Feet consist of three morae, or of four morae, a 
few also of five morae, making thus divisions of time like 
the measures of music, as follows : — 

(1.) Three-time measure (|). 

Trochee _ ^ (musically j p ), as, arma. 

Iambus ^ - ( " J f ), " erant. 

Tribrach ^ ^ w ( " P J p )> " f^cere. 

(2.) Four-time (or two-time) measure (f = §). 

Dactyl _ ^ ^ (musically f ff ), as, corpora. 

Anapaest ^ ^ _ ( " L-f f )' " domirii. 

Spondee _ - ( " f f )> " fundunt. 

Proceleusraatic ^ ^ v v ( " ff ff ), " hominibus. 



384 



VEKSIFICATION. 



(3.) Five-time measure (§).* 
Cretic _ w - (musically ^ 

Bacclrius ^ ( " 



? P P 

rr 



as, castitas. 
" C atones. 
" tenvporibus 
" celeritas. 



1st Paeon _ w w w ( " ( r [ [ f ), 

4th Paeon w w w _ ( " f_f f f ), 

To these may be added the following : — - 
a. Six-time measure (§ = f ). 

Greater Ionic - - ^ ^ (musically f f £/ ), as, correximus. 
Lesser Ionic v v _ _ ( " L-f f f )> " properabant. 
Choriambus _ w v - ( " f p p f ), " terrificant. 
Note. Several other varieties of feet are named by the ancient gram- 
marians, but are discarded by the usage of to-day, as unnecessary in ex- 
plaining Latin versification. They are : — 
Pyrrhic w w , 
Amphibrach v 
Antibacchius 



w , 

Molossus ? 

Dispondee j 

Ditrochee — w — w ? 
Diiambus ^ — \j — j 

Antispast <*/ ^5 

2d Paeon v — \j <~> ? 
3d Paeon w w — w ? 

1st Epitrite w ■> 

2d Epitrite — \j •> 

3d Epitrite ^ — j 

4th Epitrite ^ , 



as, (feus. 
" amare. 
" Romanus. 

contendunt. 
' ' conflixerunt. 
" corrqorobavit. 

amaverant. 
" adhaesisse. 
' ' potentia. 
" animdtus. 
" amaverunt. 
' ' conditores. 
' ' discordias. 
' ' adduxistis. 



It will be seen that the four-syllabled feet are merely compounds of 
the two-syllabled. 

Different Kinds of Verse. 
603. Verse is distinguished according to the kind of 
foot which forms its basis ; as, dactylic, anapaestic, tro- 
chaic, iambic, Ionic, etc. 

* This time is verv rare in music. 



ictus; thesis and arsis. 385 

604. Most kinds of verse are named, according to the 
number of feet which they contain, dimeter, trimeter, te- 
trameter, pentameter, hexameter (i. e., measures of two, 
three, four, five, or six feet). 

Thus, a dactylic hexameter is a dactylic line of six feet. 

605. Trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verses are 
either — 

(1.) Reckoned by pairs of feet (dipodies), or — 
(2.) Named by Latin adjectives in -arms, used as 
nouns, and denoting the number cf feet in the verse. 

Thus, an iambic line of six feet is called either an iambic 
trimeter (line of three measures or dipodies) or an iambic 
SENARius (line of six iambic feet) ; a trochaic line of eight 
feet is called either a trochaic tetrameter or a trochaic 

0CT0NARIUS. 

a. A combination of two verses is sometimes called a distich ; a half 
verse, a hemistich. 

6. A verse sometimes lacks a syllable at the end, and is then called 
CAtalectic ; if it is complete it is called acatalectic ; if it lacks a whole 
foot it is sometimes called brachycatalectic. 

c. Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable or foot at the end, and is 
then called hypercatalectic or hypermeter. 

d. The term penthemimeris is sometimes used to indicate a portion of 
a verse consisting of two feet and a half (measured always from the be- 
ginning). Less common are hepthemimeris (three feet and a half), 
TRiHEMiMERis (one foot and a half), and other like terms. 

Metrical Accent ; Thesis and Arsis. 

606. One syllable in every foot of a verse receives a 
greater stress of voice than the others. This is called the 
metrical accent, or ictus. 

607. The part of the foot which receives the ictus is 
called the thesis, the rest of the foot is called the arsis.* 

* Thesis (from riO-rifii, put) means the downward movement of the foot 
in beating time or marching; arsis (from afyco, raise), the upward beat or 
raising of the foot. Through a misunderstanding of the Greek, the mean- 
ing of the terms thesis and arsis has commonly been reversed, the accented 
part of the verse being called the arsis and the unaccented part the thesis. 



386 VERSIFICATION. 

Note. The alternation of thesis and arsis produces what is called the 
EHTTHM of the verse. 

Caesura and Diaeresis. . 

608. (1.) The ending of a word ivitliin a foot is called 
CAESURA Qi e., a cutting) ; the ending of a word coin- 
ciding with the end of a foot is called diaeresis. 

(2 ) In the hexameter and several other kinds of verse 
some one caesura generally marks a pause in the sense, 
and is called the principal caesura, or the caesura of the 
verse. 

a. In the hexameter the principal caesura occurs most com- 
monly in the third foot ; sometimes in the fourth foot. In the 
latter case there is usually also a slight caesural break in the 
second foot. A diaeresis at the end of the fourth foot is called 
the bucolic diaeresis, from its frequent occurrence in Greek 
pastoral poetry. 

b. When a caesura occurs after the thesis of a foot, it is called 
a masculine caesura ; in the middle of the arsis it is called a 
feminine caesura. A masculine caesura in the third foot is 
sometimes called a penthemimeris, or penthemimeral cae- 
sura. 

For examples see the dactylic hexameter (614). 

Figures of Versification. 

609. The following peculiarities in the treatment of 
words in verse are called figures of versification : — 

(1.) A vowel, or m preceded by a vowel, is regularly elided 
before a word beginning with a vowel or h. This elision 
(striking out) consists in partially suppressing the vowel or syl- 
lable, not in wholly omitting it. It is also called synaloepha 
(smearing together). Thus : — 

Quidve moror? s(I) omnes un(5) ordin(e) habetis Aehi- 
vos. (Verg., Ae., ii., 102.) 

Cf. th J for the, in English. 

a. The monosyllables do, dem, spe, spent, sim, sto, stem, qui (when plu- 



FIGURES OF VERSIFICATION. 387 

ral), with the interjections 5, heu, a, pro, vae, vdh, are not subject to 
elision, though o is sometimes made short. 

b. Before a pause, a vowel which would otherwise be elided is sometimes 
retained, especially in comedy. The succession of vowel sounds* thus 
caused is called hiatus (gaping) ; as : — 

Ter sunt conatl imponere Pelio Ossam. (Verg\, Gr., i., 281.) 
Note. When a long vowel or diphthong ending a Greek word thus 
remains unelided in the arsis, it is usually made short (systole), as the O of 
Pelio in the example. 

c. The elision of a syllable in m is sometimes called ecthlipsis (squeez- 
ing out). 

d. In the early poets final s and its preceding vowel were sometimes 
elided before a vowel, and a vowel before final S was not always lengthened 
when the next word began with a consonant. (Cf . 18, d.) 

(2.) Sometimes the vowels i and e are made partial con- 
sonants, thus making one syllable of two. This is called synae- 
resis. Thus : — 

Aurea percussum virga versumque venenis. 

(Verg., Ae., vii., 190.) 

(3.) On the other hand, the resolution of one syllable into 
two is called diaeresis or dialysis ; as, sil-u-a for sil-va. This 
is chiefly confined to a few syllables consisting of v or gu, qu, 
su, and a following vowel, and is in most cases really a survival 
of an earlier form of the given word. 

(4.) A short syllable is occasionally lengthened (diastole). 
This occurs chiefly in the thesis before a caesura. 

(5.) A vowel at the end of a verse is occasionally elided be- 
fore a vowel at the beginning of the next verse. This is called 
synapheia. Thus : — 

Omnia Mercurio similis, vocemque colorem qu(e) 

Et crmes flavos, etc. (Verg., Ae., iv., 558, 559.) 

610. The last syllable of any verse except anapaestic 
(see 630) may be either long or short indifferently. 

611. The metrical reading of verse is called scanning. 
a. Care should be taken in scanning Latin verse not only to 

* The case of m preceded by a vowel is hardly an exception, because the 
m was so feebly pronounced as merely to nasalize the vowel. (Cf. 18, d.) 



388 VERSIFICATION. 

mark the feet accurately in regard to quantity and ictus, but also 
to keep the words distinct, observing the pauses as in prose. 
When the word-accent is at variance with the ictus, the latter 
is to be made the more prominent. 

612. A fixed number of verses occurring in a regularly 
repeated order, whether the verses be of the same kind or 
of different kinds, is called a strophe or stanza, and is 
often named for some poet ; as, the Alcaic strophe or 
Horatian stanza, the Sapphic strophe. 

613. A long syllable is properly just twice the length of 
a short syllable, and all the feet of a verse are of exactly 
equal length ; but : — 

a. A long syllable is sometimes lengthened so as to be equiva- 
lent to three or even to four short ones, and is then denoted by 
the signs L and U respectively. 

b. A rest of the length of one or of two short syllables some- 
times occurs at the end of a foot. These rests are denoted by 
the signs A and A respectively. 

The Different Metres. 
Dactylic Metres. 

614. (1.) The dactylic hexameter * consists of six 
dactyls, of which the last is incomplete. 

(2.) For any of the first four feet spondees may be 
substituted. A spondee rarely occurs as the fifth foot 
also, and the verse is then called a spondaic verse. 

Note. The principal caesura (marked thus ||) is most commonly after 
the thesis of the third foot (penthemimeris) ; often, however, after the 
thesis of the fourth foot, and then there is usually a lesser caesura in the 
second foot. In many lines, however, the principal caesura is in the arsis 
of the third foot (feminine caesura). A bucolic diaeresis frequently occurs 
in pastoral poetry like Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics. 

* Often called the Heroic Verse. 



DACTYLIC METRES. 389 

The scheme of the metre is therefore as follows : — 

— WW — sJw — |[ VU — WV —WW — w 

or musically 

p p p | p p p I p . ? f . ? f ? i ^ " I ^ ^ w | 

Thus : — 

At tuba | terribi|lem soni|tum || procul | aere ca|noro. 

(Verg., Ae., ix., 503.) 
Intonjsi cri|nes [| lonjga cerjvice flujebant. 

(TibulL, iii., 4, 27.) 
Ludere | quae vel|lem || calajmo per|misit a|grestl. 

(Verg., Ec, L, 10.) 
Non medi|a de | gente || Phry|gum exe|disse ne|fandis. 

(Verg., Ae., v., 785.) 
Cf . in English : — 
Meanwhile, apart, at the head of the hall, the priest and the 

herdsman 
Sat, conversing together of past and present and future ; 
While Evangeline stood like one entranced, for within her 
Olden memories rose, and loud in the midst of the music 
Heard she the sound of the sea, and an irrepressible sadness 
Came o'er her heart, and unseen she stole forth into the gar- 
den. (Longfellow's Evangeline.) 

Note. A light and rapid movement is produced by the frequent recur- 
rence of dactyls ; a slow and heavy one by that of spondees ; as : — 

Quadrupe | dante \ pu|trem soni|tu || quatit | ung-ula | campum. 

(Verg., Ae., viii., 596.) 
111! in |ter se[se || malgna vi | bracehia | tollunt. 

(Verg-., Ae., viii., 452.) 

615. The elegiac stanza consists of a dactylic hexa- 
meter alternating with a verse consisting of two half 
hexameters each of which has its last foot incomplete 
(i. e., one long syllable). 

a. Of the half verses only the first admits a spondee instead 

* The last foot is strictly — w A. 



390 VERSIFICATION. 

of a dactyl, and both must end with the end of a word. The 
scheme is therefore as follows : — 

— <Jv — w — II w — \7Zj — v\-» —\j 
l^j l^j ±A\\ ^ww -*^ -^A 



and musically the half verses are represented thus : — 

P P P I P P P \ P >. ■ P P P \P P P | p ^ ■ 

Thus : — 

Flebilis | indijgnos || Ele|geia | solve cajpillos 

Ah nimis | ex ve|ro || nunc tibi | nomen e|rit. 

(Ov., Am., iii., 9, 3.) 
Cf . in English : — 

Lo ! in a land that is new, a new-born Salamis waits you. 
Hearts that often ere now perils have brav'd at my side 
Graver by far, — I pledge you. To-night be merry. To-mor- 
row 
Speed once more our barks over the measureless sea. 

(S. H. Hodgson : Trans, of Hot., Od., i., 7.) 
Other dactylic verses are rare. The following occur in 
strophes : — 

616. The Alcmanian strophe consists of a dactylic 
hexameter alternating with a dactylic tetrameter. The 
scheme is : — 

— v^ — vJL» — || \Jv — w — vv^ — w 

Thus: — 

Ambigu|am tel|lure no|va || Sala|mma fujturam. 

O for|tes pe|ioraque | pass! 
Mecum | saepe vi|ri, || nunc | vino | pellite | curas; 

Cras in j gens ite|rabimus I aequor. 
(Hor., Od., i., 7 ; the original of the selection under 615.) 

617. The first Archilochian strophe consists of 
a dactylic hexameter alternating with a dactylic penthe- 
mimeris (two feet and a half). The scheme is: — 

t 



V V 






TROCHAIC AND IAMBIC METRES. 391 

Thus: — 

Frlgora | nrite|scunt || Zephy|ris, ver | proterit | aetas 

Interi | tura, si|mul 
Pomifer | autum|nus || frujges ef|fuderit, | et mox 

Bruma re|carrit in|ers. (Hor., Od., iv., 7.) 

Trochaic and Iambic Metres. 

618. The longer trochaic and iambic measures belong 
chiefly to dramatic poetry. For their understanding' the 
following preliminary points are necessary : — 

(1.) When a spondee is substituted for a trochee or an iam- 
bus, it loses a portion o£ its full time, and is called an irra- 
tional spondee.* This is represented by the sign _ > (or mu- 
sically f J ') when it stands for a trochee, and by the sign > _ 
when it stands for an iambus. 

(2.) When a long syllable in a foot is exchanged for two 
short syllables, the foot is said to be resolved, and the resulting 
foot is called a resolution of the other foot. Thus, a tribrach 
(w w ^) is the resolution of a trochee or an iambus. A spon- 
dee ( — ) may be resolved into a dactyl (_ ^ ^) or an anapaest 
(^ v -), and these last into a proceleusmatic (^ v v w ). 

• (3.) All of the above feet may, therefore, occur in trochaic 
and iambic measures. When they are used in trochaic verse 
they have the ictus on their first syllable ; when used in iambic 
verse, the spondee, dactyl, and tribrach have the ictus on the 
second syllable, the anapaest and the (rare) proceleusmatic on 
the third. 

(4.) A verse may have an introductory syllable or two, like 
the introductory notes before the first full bar in music. These 
introductory syllables are called anacrusis. 

Troc&aic Metres. 

619. The most common trochaic measures are the SEP- 
tenarius (tetrameter catalectic), and the octonarius 
(tetrameter acatalectic). 

* Sometimes also an irrational trochee, or irrational iambus, respectively. 



392 



VERSIFICATION. 



a. In each of these, as used by the early dramatic poets, 
any complete foot may be resolved into a tribrach, and for any 
complete foot but the last the spondee and its resolutions may 
be substituted.* These irregularities are, however, most freely 
used in the first and fifth feet. In the late drama the substitu- 
tions are confined to the second foot of each dipody. An ana- 
paest is not used immediately after a dactyl. 

h. The commonest pause is a diaeresis at the end of the fourth 
foot, and in that case the fourth foot must not be a dactyl. 
Otherwise a break almost invariably occurs at the end of the 
fifth foot, generally with a lesser break in the fourth or after 
the third. 

Note. The ictus on the second foot of each dipody is less strong- than 
that on the first foot, and is left unmarked in the scheme of the metres. 

620. The possibilities of the septenarius may be 
represented by the following scheme : — 



± 



-^v 



or musically — 

P P i 

V I v i 



Thus : — 



V | ]/ I I V 



Nuptijas dojmi^ad pa|rari |J missast | anciljla^ilijco. 

(Ter~ An., 514.) 
I sa|ne :~eg5 t§2ex]erce]bo3hodie,3ut || clignus | es, sili|cerni|um, 
Aeschi|nus odi|ose | cessat; || prandijum cor|rumpijtur ; 
Ctesilpho^autem^in a|more | totus: ||ego iam ] prospici|am mi|hi. 

(Ter., Ad., lines 587-589.) 
Cf . in English : — 
Then the dreary shadows scattered, like a cloud in morning's 

breeze, 
And a low deep voice within me seemed whispering words like 
these. (Whittier's Cassandra Southwick.) 

* But the proceleusmatic is very rare in Plautus and not found in Ter- 



TROCHAIC AND IAMBIC METRES. 



393 



621. The possibilities of the octonarius may be repre- 
sented by the following scheme : — 



> > 



> 



> 



> 



or musically — 

r ^ r p i r p r ^ i r r r p i r p r r i 

Thus : — 

Cense | o. Sed | heus tu. | Quid vis ? || Censen | posse | mtPoffir-l 
mare. (Ter., Enru, 217.) 

Obsejcro popu| lares, | ferte || misero~at|que3nno|centi2aujxilium : 
Subve|mte3ino|pi :30ti|ose ; || nunci|am Ili|co~hic con|siste, 
Quid rejspectas? | nil pe|riclist : || numquam, | dum^ego^ade-l 
rouble te|tanget. (Ter., Ad., lines 155-157.) 

Cf. in English : — 

Beams of noon, like burning lances, through the tree tops flash 
and glisten, 

As she stands before her lover, with raised face to look and lis- 
ten. (Whittier's Slaves of Martinique.) 

622. A trochaic dimeter (catalectic) (3 1-2 feet) 
occurs in the later tragedy (used strophically). The 
second foot may be a spondee or dactyl. Thus : — 

Lenis | ac modi | ce flu | ens 

Aura | nee ver|gens la|tus. (Sen., Oed., line 887.) 

Note. This measure also enters into the formation of the Hipponac- 
te an strophe. (See 650.) Other trochaic verses are occasionally found, 
chiefly as portions only of lines. 



Iambic Metres. 



623. The iambic trimeter (senarius) is the most 
common of all dramatic measures, but the septenarius 



394 VERSIFICATION. 

(tetrameter catalectic) and octonarius (tetrameter aca- 
talectic) are also frequently used. 

a. Speaking generally, the same substitutions and resolutions 
occur as with the trochaic measures, in any foot except the last 
among the comic writers, confined mostly to the first foot of 
each dipody in other kinds of poetry. The proceleusmatic oc- 
curs chiefly in the first foot, and then the third syllable (ictus 
syllable) must begin a word, and the ictus and word accent 
must coincide. An anapaest immediately after a dactyl is 
avoided. 

624. The senarius consists of six iambic feet. The 
regular caesura is after the first syllable of the third foot 
(pentliemimeral). Otherwise, after the arsis of the fourth 
foot there is almost always a caesura, often with a diaere- 
sis after the second foot. 

The scheme is as follows : — 



> > 



v 1 

> 

V V 



Thus : — 

Phase |lus il|le || quern | vide|tis ho [spites. (Catull., 4, 1.) 

Storax.|Non redi|it || hac | nocte^a | cena^AeJschinus 
Neque ser|volo|rum || quis|quam, quPad | vorsumj[ | erant. 
Profeclto^hic ve|re di|cunt: || sl^ablsis us|piam. 

(Ter., Ad., lines 26-28.) 
Cf . in English : — 

light immortal, winds on wings of swiftness borne, 
O river sources, and the countless flashing smile 
Of ocean's wavelets, universal mother earth. 

(L. Dyer, Trans, of Aesch., Prom., 88 ff.) 

625. The septenarius consists of seven and a half 
iambic feet. The regular break is after the fourth foot, 
and this foot must then be a real iambus. If this break 



IAMBIC METRES. 



395 



does not occur, there is always a break after the arsis 
of the fifth foot. 

The scheme is as follows : — 



> 






1 *A 



Thus : — 

Salu|tant, ad | cenam | vocant, || adven[tum gra|tulan|tur. 

(Ter., Hun., 259.) 

Sed quid hoc | est? vide | on ego | Getam || curren|tem^huc ad- 

veni|re? 
Is est i|psus, ei, | timeo | miser, || quam hic^mihi | nunc nun|tiet 

rem. (Ter., Phorm., lines 177, 178.) 

Cf. in English* — 

In Scarlet towne, where I was borne, 

There was a faire maid dwellin, 
Made every youth crye " Wel-awaye ! " 

Her name was Barbara Allen. (Percy's Jteliques.) 

626. The octonarius consists of eight iambic feet. 
When the break after the fourth foot occurs without eli- 
sion, this foot must be a real iambus, as in the septenarius. 

The scheme is as follows : — 



Thus : — 
Domum | modo3i|bo,~ut ad]pare|tur || di|cam,~atque~huc | re- 
nun |tio. (Ter., An., 594.) 

Abs qui | vis homi|ne, quomst | opus, || benefici|um~accipe|re 

gau|deas ; 

Verum^enim | vero~id|demum | iuvat, || si quem^ae | quomst 

face|re~is bene|facit. (Ter., Ad., lines 254, 255.) 



* Written as two lines. 



396 VERSIFICATION. 

Cf . in English : # — 

On Linden, when the sun was low, 

All bloodless lay the untrodden snow ; 

And dark as winter was the flow 

Of Iser, rolling rapidly. (Campbell.) 

Note. Iambic measures are sometimes regarded as trochaic measures 
with anacrusis, and may then be expressed musically as follows : — 

Senarius : — 

w! -£ v - w || •£ v -v -£ w - A 

Septenarius : — 

: t \ t II ! / I t .. 



m p » p p ,p p p x p ,p p p p x p m n 

P II v\ v\\ v \ \v.\\ PI ^ I I P| 

Octonarius : — 

^ j 1^ _ v | 1 v - || w | ^ v _ ^ | ^ w _ A 

Pirpf PifPfjnrrrnfPri 

627. The pure iambic trimeter (i. e., without any 
resolutions or substitutions) is first found in Catullus. 
Thus : — 

Phase |lus il|le, || quern | vide[tis, ho | spites 

Ait | fuis|se || na|vium | celer|rimus. (Catull., 4.) 

628. The choliambic f measure is an iambic trimeter 
with a trochee for the last foot. Thus : — 

v— v/ — v||-£ ^ — v — — V 

as : — 

Miser | Catuljle || de|sinas | inep|tire 

Et quod | vides | peris |se || per|ditum | ducas. (Catull., 8.) 

a. The choliambic may also be represented metrically 
thus : — 

v— w — v||— v— vli — w 

* Written as two lines. 

t I. e., lame iambic. It is also called SCAZON (hobbling). 



ANAPAESTIC, BACCHIAC, AND CRETIC METRES. 397 

629. The iambic dimeter (catalectic) is found in the 
later tragedies. It is also called the Anacreontic, and is 
used strophically. Thus : — 

Ut ti|gris or|ba gna|tis. (Sen., 3fed., 863.) 

Note. Other iambic measures occasionally occur, chiefly as parts of 
strophes or as single lines, especially the dimeter acatalectic (quaternarius) 
and trimeter catalectic. See 650 ff. 

Anapaestic, Bacchiac, and Cretic Metres. 
Anapaestic, bacchiac, and cretic measures are mostly confined 
to the early comedy writers (especially Plautus) and the later 
tragic poets. The common forms are as follows : — 

Anapaestic Metres. 

630. In anapaestic verse a spondee, a dactyl, or a pro- 
celeusmatic may be substituted for an anapaest. There is 
a regular break after the fourth foot in the septenarius 
and octonarius. 

(1.) Septenarius. 
Quid ais ? | viro me | malo male | nuptam. || Satin au|dis quae^il-l 

lie loqui|tur ? 
Satis. Si | sapiam^hinc | intro~abe|am,~ubi mini || bene sit. | 
Mane : mahTe|rit poti|us. (Plaut., Menaech., 602, 603.) 

Cf . in English : * — 

Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, 
As his corse to the rampart we hurried ; 
Not a* soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O'er the grave where our hero we buried. 

(Wolfe's Burial of Sir John Moore.) 
(2.) Octonarius. 
Mllle mo|dis amor | ignojrandust, || procul abhi(bendust | 

atque^aplstandust ; 
Nam qui^in a|morem | praecipi|tavit, || peius pe|rit quasi | saxo | 
saliat. (Plaut., Trin., lines 264, 265.) 

* Written in two lines. 



398 VERSIFICATION. 

Cf. in English:* — 

The mistletoe hung in the castle hall, 
And the holly branch shone on the old oak wall ; 
The baron's retainers were blithe and gay, 
Keeping their Christmas holiday. 

(See Wadham's Versification, p. 65.) 
(3.) Dimeter acatalectic (quaternarius). 

Haec ego | quom cum2ani|mo meo | reputo 
Ubi quPe|get, quam | preti sit | parvi 
Apage,~amor, | te, non | places : nil | te~utor. 

(Plaut., Trin., lines 256-258.) 
Cf . in English : * — 

'T is the last rose of summer 

Left blooming alone ; 
All her lovely companions 

Are faded and gone. (T. Moore.) 

(4.) Dimeter catalectic (paroemiac). 

Quam~hic rem | gerat ani|mum~advor|tam. 

(Plaut., Trin., line 843.) 

Note. Other varieties also occur, as the trimeter catalectic and the 
monometer. This last, like the paroemiac, is used mostly as the last line of 
a series of longer anapaestic verses. 

Bacchiac and Cretic Metres. 

631. i. In bacchiac and cretic measures either (but not 
both) of the long s}^llables may be resolved, or a molossus 
( ) may be substituted. 

ii. The tetrameter is the most usual variety in each 
of these measures. A break is most common after the 
second foot. Thus : — 

(1.) Bacchiac tetrameter. [Ictus w 1 _] 

Adcura|t(Pagatur, || docte^et di|ligenter, 
TantaTmcepjta res est : || haud somni|culose~hoc 

* Written in two lines. 



CHORIAMBIC AND IONIC METRES. 

Agendumst. || Ero~ut me | voles es|se. Spero, 
Nam tu nunc | vides pro | tuo ca|ro capite 
Carum^offei'lre me meuni | caput vi|litati. 

(Plaut., Capt., lines 226-230.) 

(2.) Cretic tetrameter. [Ictus 1 ^ _] 

Copiast, | atque^ea || facitis nos | conpotes, 
Secede^huc | nunciam, || si vide|tur, procul, 
NcParbitri | dicta no || stra^arbitra | ri queant 
Neu perma|net palam^haec || nostra fal|lacia. 

~ (Plaut., Capt., lines 217-220.) 

a. The last foot is often incomplete (tetrameter catalectie) ; 
as: — 

Meo modo^et | moribus | vivito^anjtiquis. 

(Plaut., Trin., line 295.) 

Note. In comedy the iambic senarius is used for the scenes of spoken 
dialogue ; the iambic septenarius and octonarius and the trochaic septe- 
narius are used in more or less long passages, which were delivered as 
recitative with musical accompaniment. The trochaic octonarius, the 
anapaestic, bacchiac, cretic, and the shorter trochaic and iambic measures 
are used for strophic groups of lines (called cantica) which were regularly- 
sung to music. 

Choriambic and Ionic Metres. 

632. The choriambic tetrameter is occasionally 
found. [Ictus ± w ±] Thus : — 

Omne nemus | cum fluviis | omne canat | profundum. 

(Claud., Nupt. Hon., ii., 4.) 

Note. Many of the logaoedic measures (see 643) are sometimes scanned 
as choriambic. 

633. The lesser Ionic verse is found in one ode of 
Horace. [Ictus ^ v l _] A strophe consists of ten feet. 
Thus : — 

Miserarum^est | neque^amori | dare ludum | neque dulci 

Mala vmo^aut | lavere^aut ex|animari 

Metuentes | patruae ver|bera linguae. (Hor., Od., iii., 12.) 



400 VERSIFICATION. 

634. The greater Ionic (Sotadean) was used by En- 
nius, Martial, and others. [Ictus l _ w J] 

a. The early poets use double trochees and other equivalent 
feet instead of the Ionic, and resolve a long syllable of the 
Ionic freely, but Martial and the later poets confine themselves 
chiefly to one resolution in a verse, and use only the double 
trochee as a substitution. Thus : — 

Nam quam varia | sint genera po|ematorum, | Balbi, 
Quamque longe | distincta~ali|a~ab aliis sis, | nosce. 

(Ace, Didasc.) 

Has, cum gemijna compede, | dedicat ca|tenas, 
Saturne, tijbi Zoilus, | anulos pri|ores. (Martial.) 

Peculiarities of Early Versification. 

Besides the feeble force of s in early prosody (see 609, 1, d), 
the following points should be noted : — 

635. The originally long quantity of certain final sylla- 
bles, which afterwards became short, was sometimes 
retained. So — 

(1.) -es (gen. -itis) ; as, superstes. 
(2.) -or (gen. -oris) ; as, soror. 

(3.) Verb endings in -r, -s, -t ; as, regredior, augeat, fueris, 
monuit. 

a. These irregularities occur chiefly in Plautus. 

Note. The final a of the feminine singular in nouns and adjectives of 
the first declension has also often been measured long in early Latin verse ; 
as, epistuld, bond ; but many of the best authorities now deny this quantity. 

636. Words of two syllables, with the first syllable 
short, often shorten a long final vowel; as, novo; levi; 
iube* 

a. This shortening is particularly common before a syllable 
which has the verse accent ; as, darl mi. 

* This is due to the influence of the word-accent. It is much easier 
after a short accented syllable to pronounce a final vowel short than long. 



PECULIARITIES OF EARLY VERSIFICATION. 401 

637. Other long syllables are not infrequently short- 
ened when they stand after a short syllable * and before a 
syllable which has the verse accent ; as, negat Phafnium ; 
vel occidito ; semQctutem. 

638. Also after a short monosyllable which has the 
verse accent, a syllable may be shortened. Thus : sed id 
quod ; quid Istuc ; dd ipsam. 

a. So, too, the second syllable of a word of several syllables, 
if the first is short and has the verse accent ; as, voluntate. 

639. Monosyllables ending in a long vowel (or -m) 
are often employed before a vowel as the thesis of a foot, 
being shortened instead of elided. Thus : qui aget ; ne 
agcls ; quam ego. 

640. Vowels which ordinarily make a syllable of their 
own are often run together with a following vowel (even 
though h intervene), thus making one syllable of two. 
This is called synizesis or synaeresis. Thus : antehac, 
aibam (aibas, etc., always), meus, tuus, fuisse. (Cf. 
609, 2.) 

641. Doubled consonants were not regularly written 
(or sounded) in the time of Plautus, and thus words like 
ille, immo, quippe, are used by him with the first syllable 
short. 

a. Ennius first wrote doubled consonants regularly ; and his 
contemporary Terence rarely neglects their effect upon the quan- 
tity of a syllable ; when he does so, it is almost always at the 
beginning of an iambic verse. 

b. Before the combination, mute and liquid, short vowels 
always retain their natural (short) quantity in Plautus and 
Terence ; as, sa,c?% inp&trd. 

* Whether in the same word or not. In words of more than two sylla- 
bles, however, only the first two syllables seem to suffer this shortening-. 



402 VERSIFICATION". 



Saturnian Verse. 

Note. The earliest Latin verse was not, like the verses 
already treated, an imitation of the Greek, but a product of 
Italian soil. It is called Saturnian verse. Scholars are not 
agreed as to certain important points in its character, but it is 
generally admitted that the accent (ictus) has much more promi- 
nence as compared with quantity than in the Greek metres. 

642. Saturnian verse consists of two half verses with 
a break between them, on the following scheme (iambic 
dimeter catalectic -f- trochaic tripody) : — 

^1 ^1 „! * || iv -*v -** 

Thus : — 

Dab unt | malum | Metel|li || Naevi|o po|etae. 

Cornejlius | Luci|us || Sclpijo Bar|batus 

Gnaevod | patre | progna|tus || fortis | vir sapijensque 

Quoius | forma | virtu |tei || parisu|ma|fuit. 

Cf. in English : — 

The king was in the parlor, counting out his money ; 
The queen was in the kitchen, eating bread and honey. 

a. It is perhaps best to consider the last syllable of each half 
verse an accented one.* Thus : — 



Note 1. The Saturnian is found chiefly in inscriptions. Hiatus is 
allowed between the two halves of the verse. The unaccented parts 
(arses) of the verse consist of a long- syllable or a short syllable or two 
short syllables. Sometimes an arsis disappears, as in the last foot but one 
in the last line above. The accented parts (theses) must be either one long- 
syllable or two short syllables. Alliteration is common. 

Note 2. Another view now frequently held is that of O. Keller, that 
" quantity " has nothing- to do with the metre, and that the accent coin- 

* See Westphal, Gr. Metrik, ii., 42, and R. Klotz, Jahresber. 1883, 
p. 323. 



SATUKNIAN VERSE. — LOGAOEDIC VERSE. 403 

cicles always with the word-accent. Each half verse always begins then 
with an accent.* Thus : — 

Dabunt malum Metelli || NaeVio po^tae. 
BetAveen the second accented syllable and the third, two unaccented syl- 
lables always occur ; in other cases generally only one unaccented syllable. 
There are always three accented syllables in the first half verse, generally 
three in the second ; sometimes, however, only two in the second, and then 
usually an unaccented syllable before that half verse (anacrusis). The 
arsis even of the last foot occasionally consists of two syllables. 

Logaoedic Verse. 

643. Logaoedic verse is a name given to a kind of 
verse consisting of dactyls and trochees (chiefly irrational), 
from the resemblance to prose caused by slight inequalities 
in the time of the feet (from Ao'yo? and aoiSrj, prose-song). 

a. The irrational trochee (or spondee) is thus represented : 
_ > ; or musically, f '* ; the irrational dactyl is called a cyclic 

dactyl, and represented thus : -u w , or musically, J, or 

0" 
nearly y tf y. 

644. Logaoedic lines consist almost always of one dac- 
tyl and two, three, or four trochees. The dactyl occupies 
any foot but the last.f Thus : — 

Logaoedic Dipody -v v _ v (Adonic) 

Logaoedic Tripody -^ v - v _ v (1st Pherecratic) 

-^ -v^ - v (2d Pherecratic) 

Logaoedic Tetrapody -v/ ^ _ v _^ _ v (1st Glyconic) 

-v -uw -v -v (2d Glyconic) 

-v -v -vw -v (3d Glyconic) 

Logaoedic Pentapody _ v _ w -y v ..^ _^ (Lesser Sapphic) 

-v -vw -w -w -w (Phalaecian) 
a. These lines are used, either as complete in themselves or 
combined into longer lines, to make various forms of (chiefly 
strophic) verse, as in the following sections. 

* See 0. Keller, Der Saturnische Vers als rhythmisch erwiesen. 
t One logaoedic tetrapody occurs with two dactyls, the lesser Alcaic, 
thus : ~v v ~v v — v — v 



404 VEESIFICATION. 



Metres of Horace and Catullus. 

645. The Asclepiadean verse is used in five varie- 
ties, as follows : — 

(1.) Lesser (or 1st) Asclepiadean (2d Pherecratic -f- 1st 
Pherecratic). [Not strophic.] Thus : — 

1> Assj \L || A, v ! v pA 
or musically: f J'| f" gf | f | f ^ | f f|f ^| 

Maecenas ata|vis || edite | regi|bus. (Hor., Oc?., i., 1.) 

Horace, Odes, i., 1 ; iii., 30; iv., 8. 

Note. It will be seen that the last foot of the first half of the line 
consists of one long syllable protracted into the time of three short ones 
(cf. 613, a), and that the last foot in the line contains a rest. Similar 
phenomena of course occur in the other logaoedic verses given below. 

(2.) Second Asclepiadean (three lesser Asclepiadean lines 
followed by a second Glyconic). [Strophic] Thus : — 

-£> A,v \L || Aj v ■* v SA 
-*> Ajv \L || A, v 1„ C A 

-£> Ajv \L\\Ajv ± v . p A 

The last verse is musically : | v'\V'^v\\ U I 

Scribe | ris Vari|o || fortis et [ hosti|um 
Victor, | Maeoniji || carminis | ali|ti, 
Quam rem | cumque fe|rox || navibus ] aut e[ques 
Miles | te duce | gesse|rit. 
Horace, Odes, i., 6, 15, 24, 33; ii., 12 ; iii., 10, 16 ; iv., 5, 12. 
(3.) Third Asclepiadean (second Glyconic alternating with 
a lesser Asclepiadean). [Strophic] Thus : — 
1> Aj v -^ wA 
+ > Ajw \L -I Ajv ^v, PA 

Sic te | diva po|tens Cy|pri 
Sic fra|tres Hele|nae, || lucida | side|ra, 

Yento | rum que re j gat pa j ter 
Obstric|tIs ali | is || praeter I|apy|ga. 
Horace, Odes, i., 3, 13, 19, 36 ; iii., 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv., 1, 3. 



METRES OF HORACE AND CATULLUS. 405 

(4.) Fourth Asclepiadean (first two lines lesser Asclepi- 
adean, third line 2d Pherecratic, fourth line 2d Gly conic). 
[Strophic] Thus : — 



-£> -\jv \L wA 
The last two lines are, musically : 

rru-^inn 
rpis-^irnri 

Quis mul|ta gracilis || te puer | in ro|sa 
Perfu|sus liqui]dis || urget o|dori|bus 
Grato, |Pyrrha, sub | anjtro ? 
Cui fla|vam reli|gas co|mam. 
Horace, Odes, i., 5, 14, 21, 23 ; iii., 7, 13 ; iv., 13. 
(5.) Greater (or 5th) Asclepiadean (2d Pherecratic -f- 
Adonic -f- 1st Pherecratic). [Not strophic] Thus : — 

^> Ajv \L\\ Assj \L II Aj v ^w wA 

.« rr\ttt\r\rtt\r\tit\r t\r\ 

Tu ne | quaesie|ris, || scire ne|fas, || quern mihi, | quern tijbi. 
Horace, Odes, i., 11, 18; iv., 10; Catullus, 30. 

646. The Sapphic strophe is used in two varieties, as 
follows : — 

(1.) Lesser Sapphic (first three lines lesser Sapphic, fourth 
line Adonic). Thus : — 



« r p i r p- i p- 5 p i r p i r p 

Note. There is usually a caesura after the long syllable of the dactyl. 



406 VERSIFICATION. 

lam sa|tis ter|ris || nivis | atque | dirae 
Grandi[nis mi | sit || pater | et ru|bente 
Dexte|ra sa|eras || iacujlatus | arces 
Terruit| urbem. 

Cf. in English : — 

All the night sleep came not upon my eyelids, 
Shed not dew, nor shook nor unclosed a feather, 
Yet with lips shut close and with eyes of iron 
Stood and beheld me. 

(Swinburne's Sapphics.) 

Horace, Odes, i., 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii., 2, 4, 6,8, 10, 16 ; 
iii., 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27 ; iv., 2, 6, 11 ; and the Carm. Saec. ; Catullus, 
11,51. 

Note 1. Catullus, in the only two poems which he wrote in the Sapphic 
metre, differs from Horace in occasionally using a real trochee in the second 
foot, and in sometimes neglecting the caesura, or putting it between the 
short syllables of the dactyl. 

Note 2. The last two lines are occasionally run together by both Horace 
and Catullus ; as : — 

Labiltur ripa || love | non pro|bante2u- 

xorius | amnis. (Hor., Od., i., 2, lines 19-20.) 

Note 3, The Sapphic line is sometimes divided as follows : — 
-t-v ■!■> Ajv -t-v \L a A 

nv P P I P P- I P'P P J P P | P'\ P 1| 

(2.) Greater Sapphic (1st Pherecratic [Aristophanic] alter- 
nating with a greater Sapphic line (i. e., 3d Glyconic -4- 1st 
Pherecratic) . Thus : — 











^v 


\L c A 






-*v. 


± 


> 




K II 


—v v — \j l£ 


c 


A 




or 


V 


W\ 


P P 

1 V 


i r- 1 r - b 






r nr 


P- 


\l 


v\ 


n 


p. fip \p p \ 

1 Y 1 1 V \ 


P» 

\ 


ir- 1 


Lydia 


die 


per | om 


|nes 








Te de|< 


5s o 


|ro 


Syba| 


rinjl 


cur prope|res ajmanjdo. 


Horace, Odes, 


i. 8. 















METRES OF HORACE AND CATULLUS. 407 

647. The Alcaic strophe * consists of two greater Al- 
caic lines (i. e., lesser Sapphic lines, catalectic with ana- 
crusis), a trochaic dimeter with anacrusis, and a lesser 
Alcaic. Thus : — 

v?l — \J —> -V/w — w wA 

w: — v — > —\J ^ — ^ w A 

: 2 W -Z> ^ w -Z> 

- nrnrc"iwirpir- 
rifPirnwrnr 
rif PiffirPifP- 

Yiides ut | alta | stet nive | candi|dum 
Sojracte, | nee iani | sustine|ant o|nus 
Sil j vae la | boran | tes, ge | lu que 
Flumina | constite|rint a|cuto. 
Cf. in English : — 

O mighty-mouth'd inventor of harmonies, 
O skill'd to sing of Time or Eternity, 
God-gifted organ-voice of England, 
Milton, a name to resound for ages. 

(Tennyson's Ode to Milton.) 

Horace, Odes, i., 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37 ; h\, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 
13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; iii., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29 ; iv., 4, 9, 14, 15. 

648. The Glyconic-pherecratic verse is used in two 
forms by Catullus, as follows : — 

(1.) A strophie form (consisting of three, or four, 2d Gly- 
conic verses and one 2d Pherecratic) . Thus : — 
ft r 

— V -U w — v 

ft t 

— v ~v ^ - \ 

r . ' t . 



v -A 

w -A 

u -A 

\L -A 



* Also called the Horatian stanza, because Horace uses it more than 
any of the other logaoedic verses. 



408 VERSIFICATION. 



Dia|nae sumus | in fi|de 
Pueljiae^et pue|riTmte|gri : 
Dlajnam pue|ri2mte|grl 

Puel|laeque ca|na|nius. (Catull., 34.) 

Nil po|test sine | te Ve|nus, 
Fama j quod bona j comprojbet, 
Commo|di cape | re? at po|test 
Te vo|lente. Quis [ huic dejo 

Conxpajrarier | au|sit? (Catull., 61.) 



Catullus, 34, 



Note. The first foot is usually a trochee, but sometimes a spondee, or 
even (as in the first strophe above) an iambus. Cf. Greek usage. One 
verse (61, 25) has a spondee instead of the dactyl. 

(2.) A form not strophic, called the Priapean verse, in 
which the Glyconic and Pherecratic make together a single 
line. Thus : — 

O Co | Ionia, | quae cujpis || ponte | ludere | Ion | go. 
Catullus, 17. 

649. The Phalaecian verse (hendecasyllable) is a 
logaoedie pentapody with dactyl in the second place. 
Thus : — 



Cui do | no lepi|dum no|vum lijbellum. 
Cf . in English : 

Look, I come to the test, a tiny poem 
All composed in a metre of Catullus. 

(Tennyson's Hendeca syllables.) 

Catullus,!, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 
32, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 
58, 58b. 

Note. The first foot is occasionally a real trochee, or even an iambus. 



METEES OF HORACE AND CATULLUS. 409 

Other kinds of verse (not logaoedic) are used by Horace or 
Catullus as follows : — 

Strophic Metres. 

650. The Hipponactean strophe consists of a trochaic 
dimeter catalectic alternating with an iambic trimeter 
catalectic. Thus : — 

^w -w -*w wA 

V± v _ ?\\1 w _ „1 w A 

Non e|bur ne|que~aure!um 
Mea | reni|det||in|domo | lacujnar. 
Horace, Odes, ii., IS. 

651. The Pythiambic strophe consists of a dactylic 
hexameter alternating with an iambic dimeter acatalectic. 
Thus: — 

-£ yJw — ww — II WW — wO -^ w w — w 
w — W — W— WW 

Mollis in|ertia | cur || tan | tarn dif |fuderit | Imis 
Obli|violnem sen|sibus. 
Horace, Ep., 14, 15. 

652. The 2d Pythiambic strophe consists of a dac- 
tylic hexameter alternating with a pure iambic trimeter 
(acatalectic). Thus : — ■ 

— ww — w — || ww -^ JO —ww — w 
w— w— w||— w— w— WW 

Altera | iam teri|tur || bel|lis cijvilibus | aetas, 
Suis | et i|psa || E.o|ma vi|ribus | ruit. 
Horace, Ep., 16. 

653. The Iambic strophe consists of an iambic tri- 
meter alternating with an iambic dimeter. Thus : — 

O-* w- wM w- w^ ww 
w — w— w — WW 

Ibis | Libur|ms || in|ter al|ta na|vium, 
Ami|ce, pro|pugna|cula. 
Horace, Ep., 1, 2. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 



410 VERSIFICATION. 

654. The Archilochian strophe occurs in four forms, 
as follows : — 

(1.) 1st Archilochian - (see 617). 

Horace, Odes, iv., 7. 

(2.) 2d Archilochian" (consisting of a dactylic hexameter 
alternating with a so-called iambelic line [i. e., an iambic dime- 
ter -J- a dactylic penthemimeris]). Thus : — ■ 

— ww — ww — II ww — ww — w w — w 

— f - r II t t _ 

w — w — w — w — II — w w — ww w 

Horrida | tempe|stas || cae|lum con|traxit, et | imbres 

Nives|que de|ducunt | Iovem ; || nunc mare, | nunc silujae. 
Horace, Ep., 13. 

(3.) 3d Archilochian (consisting of an iambic trimeter and 
a so-called elegiambic line [i. e., a dactylic penthemimeris -f- an 
iambic dimeter]). Thus : — 

w— w— w||— w— w— WW 

— ww —ww — II w— w— w— WW 

Petti, I nihil | me || sic|ut an | tea | iuvat 
Scribere| versicu|los J| amo|re per|cursum [ gravi. 
Horace, Ep., 11. 

(4.) 4th Akchilochian - (consisting of a greater Archilo- 
chian [i. e., a dactylic tetrameter -f- a trochaic tripody] alter- 
nating with an iambic trimeter catalectic). Thus : — 

■L WW 1 ww 1 1 WW 1 WW || 1 w 1 w 1 W 
w^ w- w || 1 w-w-^^A 

Solvitur I acris hi | ems || grajta vice || veris ] et Fa|vom, 
Trahunt|que sicjcas || ma|chinae | cari|nas. 
Horace, Odes, i., 4. 

655. Alcmanian strophe. (See 616.) 

Horace, Odes, i., 7, 28; Ep., 12. 

656. Lesser Ionic strophe [Ionic a minore]. (See 
633.) 

Horace, Odes, iii., 12. 



METRES OF HORACE AND CATULLUS. 411 

Metres Not Strophic. 

657. The Galliambic metre is a lesser Ionic tetra- 
meter, employed by Catullus with various irregularities. 
The scheme is as follows : — 

t \ t r t ii t I t ^ 

w w — v I - w || WW — w I w w w — 

Super alta | vectus Attis || celeri ra|te maria. 

Catullus, 63. 

Note 1. The first two Ionic feet always suffer anaclasis, so called, i. e , 
two trochees are substituted for the last two (long) syllables of the first and 
the first two (short) of the second. Thus, instead of ^ w — — Iww — — 
is read w ^ — w I — w — — • -^- n irregular anaclasis takes place in the 
second two Ionic feet (see the scheme). 

Note 2. For the (apparent) pyrrhic thus resulting at the beginning of 
each half of the verse may be substituted a spondee or a proceleusmatic ; 
for the first pyrrhic, also a tribrach. 

Note 3. The variation of the ictus from the ordinary ictus of the lesser 
Ionic foot should be observed, as given in the scheme above. 

658. The following measures, already treated, are also 
used : — 

(1.) Pure iambic trimeter. (See 627.) 
Horace, Ep., 17 ; Catullus, 4, 29, 52* 

(2.) Choliambic. (See 628.) 
Catullus, 8, 22, 31, 37, 39, 44, 59, 60. 

(3.) Iambic septenarius. (See 625.) 
Catullus, 25. 

(4.) Dactylic hexameter. (See 614.) 
Horace, Satires and Epistles ; Catullus, 62, 64. 

(5.) Elegiac. (See 615.) 

Catullus, 65, 66, 67, 68, and 69-116. 

Note. The spondee may be used instead of an iambus in the metres 
treated in 650-658 only in the first and third feet, as a rule. In the 
iambic strophe, the 3d Archilochian, and the choliambic, resolution is occa- 
sionally employed. The trochaic lines or part lines admit no substitutions 
or resolutions. The iambic alternate line in the second Pythiambic strophe 
is also a, pure line (i. e., has only the iambus). 

* This quatrain, however, has spondees in the first and third feet of two 
of the lines. 



APPENDIX. 



GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 

Note. Most of the technical terms used to name the so-called figures 
OF speech have now gone out of use,* hut the following are still met 
with often enough to make it worth while to define them briefly. 

659. (1.) Alliteration is the repetition of words or sylla- 
bles beginning with the same letter (or sound) ; as : — 

O Tite, tute, Tatl, tibi tanta, tyranne, tulistl (Ennius apud 
Cornif., Rhet., 4, 18). 

(2.) Amphibolia is the use of equivocal words or construc- 
tions ; as : — 

Gallus = " a Gaul" or "a cock;" did te, Aeacida, Ro- 
manes vincere posse, I say that you, O son of Aeacus, the 
Romans can conquer (Enn., apud Cic, Dw., ii., 56, 116). 

(3.) Anacoluthon is a disagreement in construction between 
the latter and the earlier part of a sentence ; as : — 

Nam n5s omnes, quibus est alicunde aliquis obiectus labos, 
omne quod est interea tempus, priusquam id rescitum est, 
lucrd est, for [to] all of us upon whom some hardship is 
hurled from some quarter, the intervening time before we dis- 
cover it is so much gain (Ter.). 

The anacoluthon could be avoided by using either rids om?ies 
. . . lucrd habemus, or nobis omnibus . . . lucrd est. * 

(4.) Anaphora is the repetition of a word or of correspond- 
ing words, in the same order in successive clauses or sentences ; 
as : — 

Nihilne te nocturnum praesidhim palatl, nihil urbis vigi- 
liae, nihil timor populi . . . mdverunt ? have the guarding of 

* A few have become so common as applied to English also that they 
need no special mention. 



GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 413 

the Palatine by night, the patrol of the city, the fear of the 
people, produced no effect upon you ? (Cic, in Cat., i.) Cf. 
also 598, 1. 

(5.) Antithesis is the placing of different words or senti- 
ments in contrast ; as : — 

Caesar beneficiis ac munificentia magnus habebatur ; 
integritate vitae Cato, Caesar was thought great for his 
favors and generosity, Cato for the purity of his life (Sail., Cat., 
54, 2). Cf. also 598. 

(6.) Apocope is the omission of a letter or syllable at the 
end of a word ; as, men' for mene. Cf. also 63, ii. 

(7.) Apostrophe is the turning off from the course of the sub- 
ject, to address some absent person or personified thing ; as : — 

Quid non mortalia pectora cogis, auri sacra fames ? what 
dost thou not drive the heart of man to do, accursed hunger for 
gold? (Verg., Ae., iii., 56). 

(8.) Asyndeton is the omission of the connective between 
words or sentences ; as : — 

Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit (Cic, Cat., ii., 1, l). 

(9.) Barbarism is the use of a foreign word, or a violation 
of spelling or the rules of word-formation or metre in the use 
of a word ; as, rigorosus for rigidus. 

(10.) Chiasmus is the placing of corresponding words in op- 
posite orders in successive clauses or sentences. See the exam- 
ple under Antithesis above, and cf. also 598, 2. 

(11.) Crasis is the contraction of two vowels into one ; as, 
cogo for co-ago ; nil for nihil. 

(12.) Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words in a sen- 
tence ; as, quid multa? (sc. dicam) ; ad Dianae (sc. aedem). 

(13.) Epanalepsis is a return to the subject by the repeti- 
tion of a word or sentence after interrupting words or clauses. 
(See Verg., Georg., ii., lines 4-7.) 

(14.) Hendiadys is the expression of an idea by two con- 
nected nouns instead of a noun modified by an adjective or a 
genitive ; as : — 

Pateris libamns et auro (for pateris aureis), we pour a 
libation from golden bowls (Verg., Geor., ii., 192). 



414 APPENDIX. 

(15.) Hyp Allage is an interchange of constructions; as: — 

In nova fert animus matatas dicer e f5rmas corpora (for 
corpora mutata in novas formas), my mind leads me to tell 
of bodies changed into new shapes (Ovid, M., i., 1). 

(16.) Hyperbaton is the displacement of a word from its 
connection in a clause or sentence ; as : — 

TJt ulla intermissio fiat offici (instead of ut ulla intermis- 
sio offici fiat) (Cic, Am., 2, 8). 

(17.) Hyperbole is the exaggeration or diminishing a thing 
beyond the truth ; as : — 

Ipse arduus altaque pulsat sidera, towering he stands and 
strikes the stars on high (Verg., Ae., iii., 619). 

(18.) Hysteron proteron is a reversal of the natural order 
of the sense ; as : — 

Moriamur et in media arma ruamus, let us die and rush 
into the midst of the battle (Verg., Ae., ii., 353). 

(19.) Litotes is a mode of assertion by denying the con- 
trary ; as, non laudo = I blame ; non innoxia verba = harmful 
words. 

(20.) Metathesis is the transposition of letters in a word ; 
as, cerno beside cretus. Cf. also 72. 

(21.) Metonymy is the substitution of the name of one thing 
for another to which it has a certain relation, as the cause for 
the effect, the sign for the thing signified, etc. Thus : — 

Fruges Cererem appellamus, vinum autem Liberum, we 
call the crops Ceres and wine Bacchus (Cic, JV. D., ii., 23, 60) ; 
cedant arma togae, let arms yield to the toga [i. e., war to 
peace] (Cic, Poet. frag.). 

(22.) Oxymoron is the union of words of contrary meanings 
in such a way as to produce a seeming contradiction ; as : — 

Concordia discors ; cum tacent, clamant. 

(23.) Paronomasia is a play upon the similarity of sound 
between words ; as : — 

Amor et melle et felle est fecundissimus (Plaut., Cist., i., 1, 
70) ; civem bonarum artium, bonarum partium (Cic). 



GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 415 

(24.) Periphrasis is another name for circumlocution ; as, 
tenerl fetus ovium, tender offspring of sheep (for agni, 
lambs). 

(25.) Pleonasm is the use of more words than are necessary 
to convey the meaning ; as : — 

Sic ore locuta est (Verg., Ae., i., 614). 

(26.) Prolepsis is the anticipation of an idea before it ap- 
pears ; as : — 

Fugaces terrere equos, to frighten the horses so as to make 
them flee (cf. Hor., Od., ii., 1, 19). 

(27.) Prosopopoeia is another name for personification ; 
as : — 

Virtus intaminatis fidget honoribus, true merit shines with 
unsullied honors (Hor., Od., iii., 2, 17). 

(28.) Solecism is a violation of the rules of syntax ; as, — 
Venus pulcher (for pulchra) ; vos (for vobis) invidemus. 

(29.) Syncope is the omission of a letter or syllable in the 
middle of a word ; as, aspris for asperis. Cf. also 63, i. 

(30.) Synecdoche is the use of the whole for a part, the 
genus for the species, the singular for the plural, the material 
for the thing made, or the opposites of these ; as, tectum for 
domus ; fontem for aquam. 

(31.) Tautology is the repetition of an idea in different 
words ; as : — 

lam vos aciem et proelia et hostem poscitis, now you de- 
mand the battle line, the fight, the foe (Sil.). 

(32.) Tmesis is the separation of the parts of a word ; as : — 

Septem subiecta trioni gens, a people dwelling in the far 
north (Verg., Geor., iii., 381) ; quae me cumque vocant ter- 
rae, whatever lands call me (Verg., Ae., i., 610). 

(33.) Zeugma is the use of a word in two or more expres- 
sions, when it is strictly applicable to only one of them ; as : — 

Pacem an bellum gerens, waging peace or war ? (gerere not 
being a word which strictly applies to pax) ; semperne in san- 
guine, f err5, fuga versabimur ? 



416 APPENDIX. 

MODES OF RECKONING. 

Time. 

660. (1.) The Roman day was reckoned from sunrise to sun- 
set, and this time was always divided into twelve hours {librae). 
The night, reckoned from sunset to sunrise, was also divided into 
twelve hours. Therefore the hours were not of a fixed length, 
as with us, but varied with the season of the year. At the equi- 
noxes they had, like our hours, a uniform length of sixty minutes 
each. Between the vernal and the autumnal equinox the hours 
of daylight were more than sixty minutes long ; between the 
autumnal and the vernal equinox, less than sixty minutes. 

Note 1. In camp, the night was also divided into four watches (vigiliae) 
of three (Roman) hours each, the second ending at midnight and the fourth 
at sunrise. 

(2.) In early times the Roman year began with March, and 
the names Quinctilis (July), Sextilis (August), September, etc., 
indicated the distance of these months from the beginning of the 
year. The number of days in the year was 355, divided be- 
tween the months as follows : March, May, July, and October, 
31 each ; February, 28 ; and the others, 29 each. Every other 
year the Pontifices might put in an extra month after the 23d 
of February. 

(3.) In 46 B. G. Julius Caesar reformed the calendar, putting 
it upon its present basis.* In leap-year, February 24th was 
counted twice. Hence the name Bissextile for leap-year (Feb- 
ruary 24th being the sixth day before the first of March). The 
names Quinctilis and Sextilis were afterwards changed to 
Julius and Augustus, in honor of Caesar and his grand-nephew. 

(4.) The Romans counted their days backwards from three 
fixed points in each month : the Calends f (Kalendae), i. e., 

* Except for the slight change introduced hy Pope Gregory XIII. in 
1582 by which the closing year of a century (1700, 1800, 1900, etc.) is not 
counted as leap-year, unless its number is divisible by 400 (1600, 2000. etc.). 

f So called because the priests then announced the new moon. (Cf. ca- 
lare.) 



MODES OF RECKONING: TIME. 417 

the first of the month ; the Ides * (Idus), i. e., the 13th of most 
months, but the 15th of March, May, July, and October ; and the 
Nones | (Nonae), i. e., the 5th, except in March, May, July and 
October, when it is the 7th. Therefore : 

a. To reduce & Latin date to English terms : — 

i. If reckoned from the Calends, add two to the number of 
days in the preceding month, and subtract the given date. 

ii. Otherwise, add one to the day on which the Nones or Ides 
fall, and subtract the given date. 
Thus : — 

XV Kal. Quinct. = 30 + 2 — 15 = 17th of June. 
IV Non. Ian. = 5 — |— 1 — 4 = 2d of January. 
VIIdusMaias =16 + 1— 6 = 10th of May. 

b. To reduce an English date to Latin terms : — 

i. If later than the Ides of a given month, add two to the 
number of days in the month, and subtract the date. 

ii. Otherwise, add one to the day on which the Ides or Nones 
fall in the given month, and subtract the date. 
Thus : — 

April 3d =5 + 1— 3 = 111 Non. April. 
Dec. 10th =13 + 1 — 10 = IV Id. Dec. 
Aug. 22cl = 31 + 2 — 22 =r XI Kal. Sept. 

Note 1. The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides is called pridie 
Kalendds, Nonas, or Idas. The Romans in reckoning- counted both the 
starting'-point and the day arrived at ; therefore they had no die secundo 
Kalendds, etc., but the second day before the Calends was die tertio Kal., 
and similarly with regard to the Nones and Ides. 

Note 2. In leap-year the 24th of February was called dies bisextus, as 
the year was called annus bisextus. Sometimes both the 24th and 25th 
were called VI Kal. Mart. 

Note 3. Before the year 46 b. c. the number of days in the months of 
the old year should, strictly, be taken in transferring dates, not the number 
of days in our months ; and that makes the problem much more complicated. 

(5.) The Romans indicated the year officially by the names 
of its consuls. The Roman authors, however, sometimes reck- 
oned years from the founding of Rome (753 b. c.)4 

* The time of full moon. 

t By Roman reckoning, the ninth day before the Ides. 

\ Indicated thus : A. u. C. (i. e., anno urbis conditae). 



418 APPENDIX. 

a. To reduce a year thus reckoned to English terms : — 

i. If the number is less than 754, subtract it from 754, and 
the result gives the year B. c. 

ii. If greater than 753, subtract 753 from it, and the result 
is the corresponding year of our era. 
Thus : — 

a. u. c. 684 = 754 — 684 = 70 b. c. 
a. u. c. 767 = 767 — 753 = a. d. 14. 

b. To reduce a date b. c. or A. d. to the equivalent A. u. c. 
i. If the year is B. c, subtract the number from 754. 

ii. If the year is A. d., add the number to 753. 
Thus : — 

105 b. c. = 754 — 105 = a. u. c. 649. 
a. d. 115 — 753 -f 115 == a. u. c. 868. 
(6.) The Romans divided the year into festival days or holi- 
days (dies festi) and non-festival or working days (dies pro- 
festi). They also distinguished as dies fasti the days on which 
it was lawful to hold court, calling other days dies nefasti.* 

Note 1. Besides various festivals celebrated upon special occasions, 
such as the ludl magnl (great games) and the ludl saeculdres (centennial 
games), the Romans had several stated festivals occurring' at fixed times in 
the year. The most important are the following : — 

Lupercdlia, Feb. 15 ; Quirlndlia, Feb. 17 ; Qulnqudtrus (Festival of 
Minerva), March 19-23; Ludl Megalenses (Megalensia), April 4-10; 
Parilia or Palllia, April 21; Ludl Florales (F lor alia), April 28-May 3 ; 
Ludi Apollindres, July 6-13 ; Neptundlia, July 23 ; Consudlia, Aug. 21 
and Dec. 15; Ludl Romdnl, Sept. 4-19; Ludl Capitollnl, Oct. 15; Ludl 
Plebel, Nov. 4-17 ; Saturnalia, Dec. 17-23. 

The anniversaries of the defeat at Lake Trasumennus (June 23) and the 
defeat by the Cimbri in 105 B. c. (Oct. 6) were known as dies dtrl (black 
days). 

Note 2. In the late empire, when the division of the month into weeks 
was introduced at Rome, the days were named as follows : — 

Sunday = dies Solis ; Monday = dies Lunae ; Tuesday = dies Martis ; 
Wednesday = dies Mercuril ; Thursday = dies Iovis ; Friday = dies Vene- 
ris ; Saturday = dies Sdturnl. Sunday is also called dies dominica (i. e., 
the Lord's day). 

* For a complete calendar of special days, see Preller's Bomische Myiho- 
logie, pp. 797 ff. 



ROMAN CALENDAR. 



419 



THE ROMAN CALENDAR. 

661. The following table shows the correspondence of our 
calendar with that of the Romans. 



Days of our 


Mar. Mai. 


Jan. Aug. 


Ape. Jun. 


Feb. 


months. 


Jul. Oct. 


Dec. 


Sept. Nov. 


1 


Kalendae. 


Kalendae. 


Kalendae. 


Kalendae. 


2 


VI Nonas. 


IV Nonas. 


IV Nonas. 


IV Nonas. 


3 


V 


Ill 


Ill 


Ill 


4 


IV 


Prldie " 


Prldie " 


Prldie ' ' 


5 


III 


Nonas. 


Nonas. 


Nonae. 


6 


Prldie " 


VIII Idus. 


VIII Idus. 


VIII Idus. 


7 


Nona?. 


VII 


VII 


VII 


8 


VIII Idiis. 


VI 


VI 


VI 


9 


VII " 


V 


V 


V 


10 


VI 


IV 


IV 


IV 


11 


V 


III 


III 


III 


12 


IV 


Prldie " 


Prldie " 


Prldie " 


13 


III 


Idus. 


Idus. 


Idus. 


14 


Prldie " 


XIX Kal* 


XVIII Kal* 


XVI Kal* 


15 


Idus. 


XVIII " 


XVII " 


XV 


16 


XVII Kal* 


XVII " 


XVI " 


XIV " 


17 


XVI " 


XVI " 


XV 


XIII " 


18 


XV 


XV 


XIV " 


XII 


19 


XIV " 


XIV " 


XIII " 


XI 


20 


XIII " 


XIII " 


XII 


X 


21 


XII " 


XII 


XI 


IX 


22 


XI 


XI 


X 


VIII " 


23 


X 


X 


IX 


VII 


24 


IX 


IX 


VIII " 


VI 


25 


VIII " 


VIII " 


VII 


V 


26 


VII " 


VII 


VI 


IV 


27 


VI 


VI 


V 


III 


28 


V 


V 


IV 


Prldie " 


29 


IV 


IV 


III 




30 


III 


III 


Prldie " 




31 


Prldie " 


Prldie ' ' 







Note. In leap-year the last seven days of February were reckoned 
thus : — 

23. VII Ealendds Martias. 27. IV Kal. Mart. 

24. Bisexto " " 28. Ill 

25. VI " " 29. Prldie " 

26. V 

Cf. also 660, 4, Note 2. 



* I. e., of course, the Calends of the following- month. 



420 



APPENDIX. 



Money, Weights, and Measures. 

662. (1.) The Roman system of reckoning was a duodecimal 
one, in which the smaller unit (^) was called uncia, the larger 
unit, as. Thus : — 



Note. 



12 unciae 






= 


if 


or 1 as 


11 " 


or 


deunx 


■=. 


n 

T2 


a 


10 " 


a 


dextans 


= 


if 


« , « 


9 " 


a 


dodrans 


= 


A 


" | " 


8 " 


a 


bes 


= 


A 


" 1 " 


7 " 


it 


septunx 


— 


A 


a 


6 « 


a 


semis 


= 


A 


u l a 

2 


5 " 


U 


quincunx 


= 


_5_ 
1 2 


a 


4 " 


a 


triens 


= 


A 


" * " 


3 " 


a 


quadrans 


= 


A 


" i " 


2 " 


a 


sextans 


— 


_2_ 

1 2 


, j « 


H "_ 


ti 


sescuncia 


= 


A 


a l a 
8 


1 uncia 






= 


A 


« 


lie uncia was subdivided as 


; ollows 


: — 




Semuneia 




= 


\ uncia 


or ^ T as 


Binae sextulae 


l 

3 


" 


" A " 


Sleilieus 




= 


1 
4 


u 


11 A " 


Sextula 




= 


1 
6 


" 


" A " 


Dimidia sextula 


A 


a 


" Th " 


Seripulum 




= 


-h 


" 


rh" 


[Dimidium 


seripulum] = 


A 


" 


" irk " 



(2.) The as was thus the real unit of measurement, and the 
special units in different kinds of measures and weights were 
treated as asses, and subdivided into twelfths. 



663. 


MONEY. 




1 as 


= originally about 


a pound of copper. 


2\ asses 


= 1 sestertius or nummus 


=. about 5 cts. 


2 sestertii 


= 1 quinarius 


= " 10 cts. 


2 qumarii 


= 1 denarius 


= « 20 cts. 


25 denarii 


= 1 (nummus) aureus 


= " $5. 



1000 sestertii = 1 sestertium 



MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASUEES. 421 

Note 1. Originally all the Roman coins were copper : namely, the as and 
its fractions. The sestertius, quindrius, and denarius were introduced later, 
and were silver ; the denarius was at first equal to ten asses, but after- 
wards the as was depreciated, and the denarius was equal to sixteen asses. 
The aureus was of gold, and was first struck during the second Punic war. 

Note 2. For sums from 2,000 to 1,000,000 sesterces, mllle, milia, with ses- 
tertium (genitive plural), were used, or sestertium as a neuter noun. Thus : — 

Quadrdgintd milia sestertium or quadrdgintd sestertia = 40,000 sesterces. 

Note 3. For sums from 1,000,000 sesterces upwards, the combination 
decies (vicies, etc.) centena milia sestertium was used, and the words centena 
milia were generally omitted. Thus : — 

Decies sestertium = 1,000,000 sesterces ; centies sestertium = 10,000,000 
sesterces. 

Sometimes the numeral adverb was used alone. Thus : — 

Decies = 1,000,000 sesterces. 

Note 4. Sesterces were indicated by the sign HS. A line over this in- 
dicated thousands, lines on the sides also hundreds of thousands. Thus : — 
_HS. DCC = 700 sestertii; HS. D = 500,000 sestertii, or 500 sestertia; 
|HS.| DCCC = 80,000,000 sestertii. 

664. WEIGHTS. 

4 scrfpula = 1 sextula. 
2 sextulae = 1 sicilicus. 
4 sicilici = 1 uncia. 
12 unciae = 1 libra (as or pound). 

Note 1. The following Greek coins and weights were also used : — 
6 oboli = 1 drachma {coin or weight). 

100 drachmae = 1 mina. 
60 minae = 1 talentum (Attic). 

Note 2. In imperial times a siliqua (= -J obolus) was also used. 

665. MEASURES. 



(!•) 


Measures of Length. 


4 digit! 


= 1 palmus minor. 


3 palmi minores = 1 palmus (maior). 


4 palmi 
1^ pedes 


= 1 pes (as) (11.65 Eng. inches). 
= 1 cubitus. 


2\ pedes 
2 gradus 
125 passus 
8 stadia 


= 1 gradus. 

= 1 passus. 

= 1 stadium. 

= 1 mille (passuum) {Roman mile) 



422 APPENDIX. 

Note 1. The unit of square measure is the iugerum (as). The other 
square measures scarcely require treatment in a grammar at all. 

Note 2. These measures also were divided into the regular fractions of 
the as as the equivalent of the pes or iugerum. 

(2.) Dry Measure. 

1^ cyathi = 1 acetabulum. 

4 acetabula = 1 hemina. 

2 heminae = 1 sextarius. 

16 sextarii === 1 modius (peck). 

(3.) Liquid Measure. 

1^ cyathi = 1 acetabulum. 

2 acetabula = 1 quartarius. 

2 quartarii = 1 hemina. 

2 heminae = 1 sextarius. 

6 sextarii = 1 congius. 

4 congii = 1 urna. 

2 urnae = 1 amphora. 

20 amphorae = 1 culleus. 

ROMAN NAMES. 

666. A free Roman had usually three names. Thus : — 
(1.) The PRAENOMEisr, distinguishing the individual. 
(2.) " nomen " " gens. 

(3.) " cogxomex " " familia. 

a. Praenomina all end in -us, except Kaeso. Nomina all 
end in -ius, and are really adjectives (cf. 268). Cognomina 
have various endings, and are derived generally from some per- 
sonal peculiarity of their original bearer (cf. our nicknames). 
Thus : — 

Decimus Junius Brutus. # 
Publius Cornelius Scipio. # 
Quintus Mucius Scaevola.* 
Sometimes only two names are found ; as, Gaius Laelius. 
* From brutus, heavy, sclpw, a staff, scaevus, the left (hand or side). 



ROMAN NAMES. ABBREVIATIONS. 423 

b. Further cognomina are often used ; thus, especially, cogno- 
mina in -ianus indicate adoption from a certain gens ; -anus 
(when not added to gentile names) and -icus indicate military 
or other distinction. Thus : — 

Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, Africanus Minor.* 
Note. The adoptive name is in familiar language often reduced to the 
gentile form. Thus, Cicero calls Atticus Pomponius rather than Pompo- 
nianus. In later Latin only, a second cognomen was called an agnomen. 

c. Daughters were usually called simply by their father's gen- 
tile name ; as, Titllia (Cicero's daughter). If two sisters were 
to be distinguished, maior and minor were added. A third or 
fourth daughter was known as tertia or quarta, and so on. 

d. The Roman praenomina were abbreviated thus : — 



A. = Aulus. 


L. = Lucius. 


Q. 




== QuTntus. 


App. = Appius. 


M. = Marcus. 


Ser. 




= Servius. 


C. = Gaius. 


M' = Manilius. 


Sex. 




= Sextus. 


Cn. = Gnaeus. 


Mam. =z Mamercus. 


Sp. 




= Spurius. 


D. =. Decimus. 


N. = Numerius. 


T. 




= Titus. 


K. = Kaeso. 


P. == Publius. 


Ti. or 


Tib. 


= Tiberius. 



667. ABBREVIATIONS. 



A. = absolvo, antlquo. 


Eq. Rom. 


= eques Romanus. 


a. d. =: ante diem. 


F. or f. 


= fllius. 


A. u. c. = anno urbis condi- 


Ictus. 


= iurisconsultus. 


tae. 


Id. 


r= Idus. 


C. = condemno. 


imp. 


= imperator. 


cos. = consul. 


I. 0. M. 


= IovT optumo max- 


coss. = consules. 


umo. 




D. = divus. 


K. or Kal. (or Cal.) = Kalen- 


d. d. = dono dedit. 


dae. 




d. d. d. = dat, dicat, dedicat. 


N. or n. = 


= nepos. 


des. = designatus. 


Non. = 


= Nonae. 


D. M. = di manes. 


P. C. = 


= patres conscript!. 



* The younger Africanus was adopted hy P. Cornelius Scipio (the son 
of Africanus Major) from the Aemilian gens. 



424 



APPENDIX, 



pi. = plebis. 

pout. max. = pontifex maxi- 

mus. 
pop. = populus. 
P. R. = populus Romanus. 
pr. = praetor. 
proc. = proconsul. 
Q. B. F. F. Q. S. = quod bonum 

fellx faustumque sit. 
Quir. = Quirltes. 
resp. = res publica. 
S. = salutem, sacrum, Senatus. 



S. D. = salutem dicit. 

S. D. P. = salutem dicit pluri- 

mam. 
S. P. Q. R. = Senatus popu- 

lusque Romanus. 
S. T. E. Q. V. B. E. = si tibl 

est quod vis bene est. 
S. V. B. E. E. Y. = si vales 

bene est, eg5 valeo. 
Sc. = senatus consultum. 

tr. = tribunus. 

U. (u. r.) == uti rogas. 



668. PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 



Note 1. The writers from the time of Lucretius to the time of Sueto- 
nius are called the Classical writers. In a more restricted sense this 
term is limited to the period beginning with Cicero and Caesar and ending 
with Tacitus. The Classical period is sometimes divided into the Golden 
Age and the Silver Age, the historian Livy counting as the first prose 
writer of the latter and the Augustan poets being reckoned in the former. 
Among the writers later than Suetonius a Brazen Age, followed by an 
Iron Age, is sometimes further distinguished. The waiters before and 
after the Classical period are, however, now generally classed simply as 
Ante-classical and Post-classical writers, respectively. 

Note 2. The following alphabetical list of the chief Latin writers is 
subjoined as a convenient reference-list for the pupil. 



Ace. or Att. 

Amm. 

App. 

Aug. 



L. Accius or Attius (trag.) 170-94 b. c. 
Ammianus Marcellmus (hist.) died A. D. 400. 



Aur. 
Aus. 
Boeth. 



Caecil. 



Vict. 



L. Appuleius (philos.) 
Aurelius Augustmus (Chr. 

writ.) 
Sextus Aurelius Victor (hist.) 
D. Magnus Ausonius (poet) 
Anicius Manlius Torquatus 

Severmus Boetius or Boe- 

thius (philos.) 
Statius Caecilius (corned.) 



flour. A. d. 160. 

died a. d. 430. 
flour, a. d. 360. 
died A. d. 390. 



died A. d. 525. 
flour. 180 b. c. 



Caes. 
Cassiod. 



PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 

100-44 B. C. 



425 



Cato 

Cat. or 
Catull 
Cels. 



:} 



Censor. 
Charts. 

Cic. or C. 

Claud. 
Col. 

Cornif. 

Curt. 

Donat. or | 

Bon. \ 

Enn. 

Fest. 

Flor. 

Front, or ) 

Frontin. 

Fronto or 

Front. 

Gai. 

Gell. 

Hier. 

Hirt. 

Hor. 
lust. 



to or > 
t. > 



Gaius Iulius Caesar (hist.) 
Magnus Aurelius Cassiodo- 

rus (hist.) 
M. Porcius Cato (orat. and 

hist.) 

C. Valerius Catullus (poet) 

Aurelius Cornelius Celsus 
(physic.) 

Censoiinus (gram.) 

Flavins Sosipater Charisius 
(gram.) 

M. Tullius Cicero (orat. and 
philos.) 

Claudius Claudianus (poet) 

L. Iunius Moderatus Colu- 
mella (husbandly) 

Q. Cornificius (rhet. " ad 
Herennium ") 

Q. Curtius Rufus (hist.) 

Allius Donatus (comment.) 
Q. Ennius (poet) 



died a. d. 575. 

234-149 b. c. 
87-54 b. c. 

flour. A. D. 50. 
flour, a. d. 238. 

flour. A. d. 375. 

106-43 b. c. 
flour. A. d. 400. 

flour, a. d. 50. 

flour. 80 B. c. ? 
flour. A. d. 50. 

flour, a. d. 350. 
239-169 b. c. 



Sex. Pompeius Festus (gram.) flour. A. d. 150 ? 
L. Annaeus Floras (hist.) flour. A. d. 140. 

S. Iulius Frontinus (engin., 
etc.) 



M. Cornelius Fronto (orat.) 

Gaius (Iurisconsultus) 
Aulus Gellius (gram., etc.) 
Hieronymus (Chr. writ.) 
Aulus Hirtius (hist., "8th 

book of Caes.," etc.) 
Q. Horatius Flaccus (poet) 
Iustmianus (emperor, 

" Code ") 



a. d. 40-103. 
a. d. 100-175. 

a. d. 110-180. 
a. d. 130-175. 
died a. d. 420. 

died 44 b. c. 
65-8 b. c. 

died a. d. 565. 



426 



APPENDIX. 



Iuv. 


D. Iunius Iuvenalis (satir. 






poet) 


a. d. 60-140. 


Pact. 


L. Caelius Lactantius Firmi- 






anus (Chr. writ.) 


died a. d. 325. 


Piv. 


Titus Livius (hist.) 


59 B. C. -A. D. 17 


Liu. Andron. 


Livius Andronicus (trag.) 


284-204 b. c. 


Luc. 


M. Annaeus Lucanus (poet) 


a. d. 39-65. 


Lucil. 


C. Ennius Lucilius (satir. 






poet) 


died 103 b. c. 


Pucr. 


T. Lucretius Carus (poet, 






philos.) 


98-55 b. c. 


Macr. 


Aurelius Theodosius Macro- 






bius (critic) 


flour, a. d. 400. 


Mart. 


M. Valerius Martialis (poet) 


a. d. 40-102. 


Mart. Cap. 


Marti anus Minneus Felix 






Capella (satir.) 


flour, a. d. 425 ? 


Mel. or Mela 


Pomponius Mela (geog.) 


flour. A. d. 45. 


Min. Pel. 


Minucius Felix (Chr. writ.) 


flour. A. d. 200. 


Naev. 


C. Naevius (draui. and epic 






poet) 


235-199 b. c. 


Nep. 


Cornelius Nepos (biog.) 


flour. 44 b. c. 


Non. 


Nonius Marcellus (gram.) 


flour. A. D. 280 ? 


Ov. 


P. Ovidius Naso (poet) 


43 B. C. - A. D. 17, 


Pac. or } 
Pacuv. ) 






M. Pacuvius (trag.) 


220-132 b. c. 


Pers. 


A. Persius Flaccus (satir.) 


a. d. 34-62. 


Petr. 


Petronius Arbiter (satir. 






romanc.) 


flour. A. D. 60 ? 


Phaedr. 


T. Phaeclrus (fab.) 


flour. A. d. 40. 


Plant. 


T. Maccius Plautus (corned.) 


254-184 b. c. 


PUn. 


C. Plinius Secundus [Maiorl 





(nat. hist.) 
PUn. C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus 

[Minor] (letters) 
Prise. Priscianus (gram.) 

Prop. Sextus Propertius (poet) 



a. d. 23-79. 

a. d. 62-113. 
flour, a. d. 500. 
49-15 b. c. 



PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 427 



JPrud. 


Aurelius Pruclentius Clemens 






(Chr. writ.) 


flour. A. d. 400. 


Quint. 


M. Fabius Quintilianus (rhet.) 


a. d. 35-95. 


Sail. 


C. Sallustius Crispus (hist.) 


87-34 b. c. 


Sen. 


[M.] Annaeus Seneca (rhet.) 


54 b. c. -a. d. 39. 


Sen. 


L. Annaeus Seneca (phil. 






and trag.) 


4 B. C. -A. D. 65. 


Serv. 


Servius Honoratus (gram.) 


flour, a. d. 390. 


Sid. 


Apollinaris Sidonius (Chr. 






writ.) 


died a. d. 488. 


Sil. 


C. Silius Italicus (poet) 


a. d. 25-101. 


Stat. 


P. Papinius Statius (poet) 


a. d. 45-96. 


Suet. 


C. Suetonius Tranquillus 






(biog.) 


a. d. 75-160. 


Tac. 


C. Cornelius Tacitus (hist.) 


a. d. 55-119. 


Ter. or T. 


P. Terentius Afer (corned.) 


185-159 b. c. 


Ter. Maur. 


Terentianus Maur us (gram.) 


flour, a. d. 290. 


Tert. 


Q. Septimius Florens Tertul- 






lianus (Chr. writ.) 


died a. d. 220. 


Tib. 


Albius Tibullus (poet) 


54-19 b. c. 


TJlip. 


Domitius Ulpianus (jur.) 


died a. d. 228. 


Vol. Fl. 


C. Valerius Flaccus (poet) 


flour, a. d. 70. 


Val. Max. 


Valerius Maximus (hist. 






anec.) 


flour. A. D. 26. 


Vol. Prob. 


M. Valerius Probus (gram.) 


flour, a. d. 60 ? 


Varr. 


M. Terentius Varro (hus- 






bandry, gram., etc.) 


116-27 b. c. 


Veil. 


P. Velleius Paterculus (hist.) 


flour, a. d. 30 ? 


Ver. Flae. 


Verrius Flaccus (gram.) 


died 4 b. c. ? 


Verg. 


P. Vergilius Maro (poet) 


70-19 b. c. 


Vitr. 


Vitruvius Pollio (arch.) 


flour. 10 b. c. 



INDEX. 



The references in the following Index are to the sections and sub-sections, not to 
pages. N stands for note, f for foot-note, ff . after a number indicates that the subject 
extends through several sections. 



A, sound of, 16; noun steins in, 89, 
91 ff. ; adjective stems in, 142 ff. ; 
verb stems in, 217 If. ; Greek 
nouns in, of 1st decl., 94; Greek 
nouns in, of 3d decl., 125 (4) ; 
euphonic changes of, 58 ff. ; quan- 
tity of, 46, 46 a ( 1 ), 225, 241. 

A, ab, abs, with abl., 427, 430; 
with verbs of asking, 394 (2) a; 
with verbs of origin, 405 a; to 
denote agent, 406 ; form of, in 
composition, 301 ( 1 ) ; meanings 
of, 561 (1). 

Abbreviations, 667; of praenomina, 
666 d. 

Abest, tantum . . . ut, with ut or quln, 
499 c. 

Ablative. 88 (6) ; sing, in 3d deck, 
114, 115 ; sing, in adj. of 3d deck, 
148, 155 (2) ; plur. in -abus, 93 e; 
plur. in -obus, 160 ; plur. in -ubus, 
129 ; old form of, in d, 90 f; as 
adverb, 293, 557 c ; of character or 
quak, 411 ; with prep., 430, 431 ; 
with comp. verbs, 380 b ; with opus 
and usus, 417 ; with dlqnus, etc., 
418; with ulor, etc., 419; with 
nitor, etc., 420 ; with adsuesco, etc., 
421 ; of source, 405 ; of material, 
405 c; of cause, 404; of means 
or inst., 407 ; of agent, 406 ; of 
manner or accomp., 410 ; of spe- 
cif., 412 ; of plenty, 409 ; of want, 
414; with jacio, 412 a; of sepa- 
ration, 413 ; of price, 408 ; of 
time, 424 ; of place, 425 ff . ; with 
compar., 416 ; of deg. of diff ., 415 ; 
absolute, 422 ; with de, ex, in, in- 
stead of part, gen., 358 (5) ; of the 



penalty, 367 6; with dono, etc., 
379; of way by which, 407 c; 
with palam, 431 g ; of gerund and 
gerundive, 551 c. ^ 

Absque with abl., meanings of, 561 
(2). 

Abstract nouns, 75 i ; endings of, 
272 ff . ; used collectively, 434 ; 
use of plur. of, 437 (3) ; neut. adj. 
used for, 439 (I), (4); formed 
from nouns and adj., 273; formed 
from verbs, 274. 

-abus, dat. and abl. plur. in, 93 e. 

Ac or atque, 562 (3) ; in compar., 562 
(3) b; subjunctive with ac, si, 
481 (2). 

Acatalectic verse, 605 b. 

Accent, 30; acute, grave, and cir- 
cumflex, 30 a f 2 ; rules of, 31 ff. ; 
further back than antepenult in 
early Latin, 33 a; of gen. and 
voc. in I for il or ie, 97 a. 

Accompaniment, abl. of, 410. 

Accusative, 88 (4) ; sing, in 3d deck, 
113 ; neut. used as adverb, 174 c, 
293, 557 b; as direct object, 392 
ff . ; with miscret, etc., 364 (2); 
with iuvo, 376 a ; with verbs comp. 
with trans, 394 (3) ; with verbs 
comp. with ante, ad, etc., 377 (2) ; 
with verbal nouns and adj., 399; 
of specif., 398; with prep., 429, 
431 ; of time, 423 ; of place, 423, 
425 ff. ; of exclam., 400; as subj. 
of inhn., 401; two ace, 394; re- 
tained in pass., 394 (2) c; with 
propior, etc., 390 (4); cognate, 
396; adverbial, 397; with mid- 
dle voice, 395 ; of the anticipated 



430 



INDEX. 



subject, 393 b; of gerund and I 

gerundive, 551 b, 552 (2). 
Accusing and acquitting, verbs of, 

constr., 367. 
-aceus, adj. ending, 268. 
Acquiesco, constr. with, 421 a. 
Ad, constr. of verbs, comp. with, 

377; meaning "nearly," 559 (1) 

F ; form in comp., 301 (2) ; 

with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 559 

(1). 

-ades, patronymic ending, 277, 278 
(4). 

Ademo, constr. with, 380. 

Adhuc locorum, 355 (5) a. 

Adjectives, 74 (2), 141 ; classes of, 
142 ; 1st and 2d decl., 143 ff. ; 3d 
decl., 149 ff. ; three endings, 150, 
151 ; two endings, 152, 153 ; one 
ending, 154; abl. sing, in 3d decl., 
155 (2) ; -um in gen. plur. of, 155 
(3); redundant, 155 (7) ; adj. pro- 
nouns, 179 n ; position of, 587 ; 
numeral, 156 ff. ; multiplicative, 
286 (1); proportional, 286 (2); 
temporal, 286 (3) ; defective, 155 
(5), (6) ; comparison of, 163 ff . ; 
irreg. compar., 166 ff. ; defective 
compar., 170 ff. ; derivation of, 
254 ff. ; compound, 295 ff . ; verbal, 
252 a ; agreement of, 332 ff. ; with 
nouns of diff. gender, 336 ff . ; not 
agreeing with proper names, 441 ; 
peculiarities in use of, 438 ff. ; 
without a noun, 438, 439 ; neut. 
as adverb, 174 c, 293, 557 b, c ; 
adj. used where English prefers 
noun with prep., 440 ; gender 
with part, gen., 341 b; used with 
gen. case, 359 ff. ; with dat., 388 
ff. ; with infin., 536 (2) ; for ad- 
verb, 557 h ; position of, with 
regard to their nouns, 586. 

Admonishing, verbs of, 366, 367 c. 

Admonitu, 137 (4) a. 

Adonic verse, 644, 646 (1). 

Adsuesco, adsuefacio, constr. with, 
421. 

Adventu, as abl. of time, 424 b. 

Adverbs, 74 (5); correl., 187; of 
manner, 557 a, d; of amount, 
557 b; of degree, 557 c, d; nu- 
meral, 157 (4), 158 ff.; deriva- 
tion of, 292, 293; comparison of, 



174 ff. ; qualifying particip. used 

as nouns, 438 a; position of, 

588. 
Adversative conjunctions, 566 ff. 
Adversus, with ace, 429 ; meanings 

of, 559 (2). 
Ae, diphthong, 7 ; how pronounced, 

17 ; weakened in late Latin to e, 

17 b; euphonic change of, 60; in 

reduplication, 231 (3) d. 
Aegyptum, as ace. of motion toward, 

426 e. 
Aequo, after comparatives, 416 b. 
-aeus, adj. ending, 268 a. 
Agency, nouns of, 270. 
Agent, abl. of, 406 ; dat. of, 383. 
Ages of Latin literature, 668 N 1. 
Agnomen, 666 b K. 
Agreement, of verb, 316 ff. ; of 

appos. and pred. nouns, 324 ff. ; of 

adj., 332 ff. ; of rel. pron., 342 ff. 
At, old diphthong, la; old gen. 

and dat. ending, 93 a. 
ox, how represented in Latin, 38 

d n. 
Aid, conjugation of, 249 (4) ; use of, 

516 b; aibam, etc., as dissylla., 

249 (4) a. 
-al, nouns in, 47 a, 103, 262 a. 
Alcaic verse, 647. 
Alcmanian strophe, 616. 
Alibi, alicubX 308. 
Alienus, use of, for gen. of alius, 

147 (2). 
Aliquis, declined, 184; difference in 

subs, and adj. forms of, 184 b; 

use of, 457. 
-alt's, adj. ending, 262. 
Aliter, 174 f. 
Alius, declined, 146; use of, 460; 

followed by ablative, 416 d ; alii, 

alils, for reciprocal relation, 449 

(2). 
Alphabet, 3 ff . ; divided into vowels 

and consonants, 4. 
Alter, declension of, 145, 146 ; use of, 

460 ; alter . . . alter, 598 a; instead 

oisecundus, 161 d; genitive alterius 

used for alius, 147 (2). 
Alteruter, 146 a, 460 c. 
Amb, form in comp., 302 (1). 
Ambo, declension of, 160 6; distin- 
guished from uterque, 460 a. 
Amo, conjugated, 222, 223. 



INDEX. 



431 



Amplius, with or without quam, 416 
c. 

An, use of, 578, 580; haud scio an, 
etc., 579 a. 

Anacreontic verse, 629. 

Anacrusis, 618 (4). 

Analogy in word-formation, 257 n. 

Anapaestic verse, 630. 

Anaphora, 598 (1), 659 (4). 

Animi, locative use of, 426 6. 

Anne, use of, 580 b. 

Annon, use of, 581. 

Ante, with ace, 429 ; constr. of verl.s 
coinp. with, 377 ; with quam, 505 ; 
with ace. or abl. in expressions of 
time, 559 (3) 1st f ; form incomp., 
301 (3); meanings of, 559 (3); 
ante diem, etc., 424 c, e,f. 

Antecedent, 342. 

Antepenult, 25 n (1) ; quantity of 
certain antepenults, 52. 

Antequam, moods with, 505. 

-anus, adj. ending, 265. 

Aorist tense, 462 (1)6. 

Apocope, 63 ii., 659 (6). 

Apodosis, n before 476. 

Appellative nouns, 76 ii. 

Appetens, etc., constr. with, 361. 

Apposition, 324 ff. ; genitive in- 
stead of, 326 ; with names of 
towns, 426 g, h ; with nomen, 326 
a ; partitive, 325 c ; correspon- 
dence in gender and number with 
limited noun, 329. 

Aptus, ad, 390 (1). 

Apud, with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 
559 (4). 

Arbitrate, 137 (4) a. 

Arehilochian verse, 617, 654. 

Aristophanic verse, 646 (2). 

-dris, adj. ending, 262. 

-drum, noun ending, 276 (4) ; -drius, 
adj. ending, 269. 

Arrangement of words, 584 ff. 

Arsis and thesis, 607. 

-as, genitives in, 93 c ; nouns of 3d 
decl. in, 109 ; Gentile ending, 279. 

-as in ace. plur. of Greek nouns, 124 ; 
gentile adj. ending, 279; final 
quantity of, 50. 

As, unit of value, 662 (1), (2) ; assis, 
as gen. of price, 372 a. 

Asclepiadean verse, 645. 

Asking, etc., verbs of, with two ace, 



394 (2) ; constr. in passive, 394 

(2) c ; subjunc. with, 486, 491. 
Aspergo, constr. with, 379. 
Aspirates, 11 iii. ; sounds of, 18 g. 
-dsso, etc., as future perf. and future 

endings, 228 d, e. 
Assimilation, 65 ff. ; partial, 66, 67. 
Ast, 568 (2) r. 
As/pideton, 564, 564 c. 
-dt(i), stem ending of nouns, 109 a ; 

of adj., 279. 
At, conjunction, 566 (2). 
-atim, adverbs in, 292 (2). 
Atque, use of, 562 (3) ; in com par., 

562 (3) b. 
Atqul, use of, 569 (1). 
Attraction, with relative, 342 d, e; 

subjunc. of, 523. 
Attributives, 333. 
-dtus, adj. ending, 280. 
Au, diphthong, 7; how pronounced, 

17 ; euphonic change of, 60. 
Audeo, semi-deponent, 196. 
Audio, conjugated, 222,223; dido 

audiens with dat., 391 (4). 
Ausim, 228 d. 
Aut, use of, 565. 
Autem, use of, 568 ; postpositive, 

590 a. 
-dv-, perf. stem ending, 218 b. 
-ax, adj. ending, 267. 

B, final or before s, like p, 18 f. ; 
euphonic changes of, 66 i., vi. 

Bacchiac verse, 631. 

Balineum, 38 d; pi., 135 (4). 

Barbiton, declined, 98. 

Belli, locative use of, 426 (2) a; bello, 

as abl. of time, 424 b. 
-ber, end of names of months, 151 ; 

of other adjectives, 284. 
-bilis, adj. ending, 261. 
Black days, 660 (6) n 1. 
Bonus, declined, 143. 
Bos, declined, 110. 
-bri-, stem endings, 108 b. 
Brachyeatalectic verse, 605 6. 
-brum, noun ending, 258. 
Bucolic diasresis, 608 a. 614 n. 
-bulum, noun ending, 258. 
-bundus, adj. in, 281 ; with ace, 399. 

C, sound of, 18; originally repre- 
senting sound of our G, 3 d ; as 



432 



INDEX. 



abbreviation for Gaius, 3 d ; eu- 
phonic changes of, 66 iii., vii., 69 
ii. (1),71 (1). 

Caelum, pi ur. of, 135 (3). 

Caesura, 608 (1) ; masc. and fem., 
608 b; in hexameter, 608 a, 614 
K ; in iambic verse, 624 ff . ; in 
trochaic verse, 619 b: in Sapphic 
verse, 646 N ; principal, 608 (2) ; 
penthemimeral, 608 b. 

Calendar, 661. 

Calends, 660 (4). 

Capio, conjugated, 222, 223. 

Capital letters, 3 a; as numerals, 
162. 

Caput, declined, 104 ; capitis and 
capitalis poenae, as gen. of penalty, 
367 a ; capite without prep., 426 d. 

Carbasus, plur. of, 135 (2). 

Cardinal numbers, 157 ( 1 ). 

Card, 111 (2). 

Case-endings, table of, 90; in 1st 
decl., 93; in 2d decl., 97; in 3d 
decl., 112 ff. ; in 4th decl., 128; 
in 5th decl , 133 ; in adjectives, 
147, 155 ; in pronouns, 179, 180, 
182, 184 ff. 

Case(s), 87, 88. 

Catalectic verse, 605 6. 

Catullus, metres of, 645 ff. 

Causa, gratia, etc., with gen., 404 
(3)6. 

Causal conjunctions, moods with, 
519 ff. ; clauses, position of, 596 
(2). 

Cause, abl. of, 404. 

Cavere, with dat. or ace. in diff. 
senses, 378. 

Cave, use of, 493 a, 529 d. 

-ce, enclitic, 35 a ; attached to de- 
monstr. pron., 180 c. 

Cedo, imperative, 249 (10) c. 

Celer, declension of, 151. 

Celo, constr. with, 394 (2). 

Centena milia, 663 n 3. 

-cer, -oris, adjective endings, 284. 

Certe, use of, 572. 

Ceterum, as conj., 568 b. 

-ceus, adjective ending, 268. 

Ch, 11 iii. ; sound of, 18 g. 

Characteristic, gen. of, 356 ; abl. 
of, 411 ; clauses of , 500 (2) ; vowel, 
in nouns and adj., 89 a ; in verbs, 
217 F. 



Chiasmus, 598 (2), 659 (10). 
Choliambic verse, 628. 
Choriarnbie verse, 632. 
Circiter, with ace, 429; as adverb, 
559 (6) f 2 ; meanings of. 559 

Circum (circa), with ace, 429 ; mean- 
ings of, 559 (5). 

Circum do, constr. with, 379. 

67s, citrd, with ace, 429 ; meanings 
of, 559 (7). 

Citerior, compared, 170 (1). 

Cities, gender of names of, 81 ii. 

-cius, adjective ending, 268. 

Clam, constr. with, 431 g. 

Clauses, 312 ff. ; as subject, 318 a, 
484, 531, 540, 541; with parti- 
ciple in abl. absol., 422 b; de- 
pendent in form but independent 
in force, quoted, 516 d. 

Close syllables, 25 n 3 ; vowels, 5 
F 2. 

Coepl, conjugated, 249 (3). 

Cognate ace, 396. 

Cognomen, 666 (3). 

Collective nouns, 76 iii. ; abstracts 
used for, 434 (cf. 435) ; agreement 
with, 346 (1), 347 (1), 348 (1). 

Com, form in compounds, 301 (4). 

Commanding, verbs of, cases with, 
376; mood with, 487, 489 (4), 
490, 491. 

Commands, expressed by imperat., 
527, 528; by subj., 472, 529 a, b, 
(2) ; in other ways, 527 d, e, 529 
c, d, e. 

Comitils, as abl. of time, 424 b. 

Common, nouns, 76 ii. ; gender, 83 ; 
quantity, 26, 27, 29. 

Comparative, conj., mood with, 
481 ; tenses of subjune with, 481 
a, 526 a (2) ; degree, 164 (2) ; uses 
of, 164 a ; formation of, 165 ff. ; 
wanting, 171 ; comparatives decl., 
152 ; comparative clauses with 
quam, quoted, 516 e. 

Comparison, 74 (8) N ; of adj., 163 
ff. ; irreg., 166 ff. ; defective, 170 
ff. ; with maqis and maxime, 173 ; 
of adverbs, i74 ff. 

Complementary infin., 532. 

Completed action, tenses of, 462 ; 
syntax of, in subj. in independ. 
clauses, 472 c, 473 a, 474 a, 475 



INDEX. 



433 



a ; conditional clauses, etc., 476 
(2) b; clauses of purpose, 482 (3) 
b ; of result, 483 (3) c ; temporal 
clauses, 470 (2), 511 a. 

Complex sentence, 314 a. 

Compound, words, 251, 294 ff. ; 
nouns and adj , 295 ff. ; verbs, 
298; quasi compounds, 300 a, b; 
compound sentences, 311 (2) ; 
quantity of compounds, 53, 304 
ff. 

Concession, hortatory subj. denot- 
ing, 472 (4). 

Conative use of pres. tense (at- 
tempted action), 464. 

Concessive particles, moods with, 
478 ff. ; use of tenses with, 524 a 
(3), 526 a (2). 

Concrete nouns, 75 ii., 76 ; used 
for abstracts, 432, 433. 

Condemning, verbs of, constr. with, 
367. 

Conditional particles, moods with, 

476 ff. 

Conditions, simple, 476 ; contrary 
to fact, 476 a, 477 a, c; general, 

477 d; in indir. discourse, 517 ; 
mixed forms, 477 e,f. 

Confldo, semi-deponent, 196; with 

abl., 420; with dat., 420 a. 
Confit, 246 a, 249 (10) d. 
Conjugation, 74 (8) n, 208 ff . ; regu- 

1 ir, 217 ff. ; periphrastic, 229 ; ir- 

reg., 239 ff. ; defective, 249 ; of 

sum, 215 ; possum, 216. 
Conjunctions, 74 (7), 562 ff. ; copu- 
lative, 562 ff . ; disjunctive, 565; 

adversative, 566 ff . ; illative, 570; 

words for " for," 571 ; position of, 

590. 
Connectives, relatives used as, 451 ; 

quidem, etc., 572. 
Consecutive clauses, with particles, 

483 (1), (3); with relatives, 483 

(2) ; substantive clauses, 484, 

493 ff. 
Consonants, 4 ii., 9 ff. ; sounds of, 

18 ; euphonic changes of, 65 ff . 
Consonant stems of nouns, 100 ff. ; 

of adj., 152 ff. ; of verbs, 217 a. 
Constdre, with ablative of material, 

405 c. 
Constat, impersonal, 250 c; mood 

with, 318 (4) a, 531 a. 



Constructio ad sensum, 345 ff. 
Consuesco, constr. with, 421. 
Cousulere, with dat. and ace. in cliff. 

senses, 378. 
Contentus, with abl., 418. 
Continued action, tense of, 461. 
Centra, with ace, 429; meanings of, 

559 (8). 
Contracted syllables, quantity of, 

40, 42 a. 
Contraction, 61 ; in tenses from 

perf. stem, 228 a. 
Copulative conj., 562 ff. 
Coram, with abl., 430 ; meanings of, 

561 (3). 
Correlatives, table of, 187. 
Credlbili, after comparatives, 416 b. 
Credo, 241 b, c. 
Cretic verse, 631. 
Crime, gen. of the, 367. 
-crum, noun ending, 258. 
Cu for earlier quo, 59 c, 185 d n ; 

186 (2) a F. 
Cuias, declined, 188 a. 
Cuius, declined, 186 (2). 
■culum, noun ending, 258. 
-cuius, -a, -am, diminutive endings, 

259 (4). 
Cum, prep, with abl., 430; with abl. 

of accomp., 410 (1) ; meanings of, 

561 (4) ; appended to pronouns, 

431 e. 
Cum, moods with, 509 ff. 
Cum . . . turn, 513, 563 (2). 
-cundus, adj. ending, 281. 
Curd ut, with subj., 527 d. 
-cus, adj. ending, 266, 279. 
Customary action, expressed by 

pres. and imperf., 464. 
Cyclic dactyl, 643 a. 

Z),fmal like t, 18 f.; euphonic changes 
of, 66 iv., 69 ii. (2), iii., 71. 

Dactylic verse, 614 ff. 

Dates, 424 c, d, e,f, 660. 

Dative, 88 (3) ; in -dbus, 93 e ; in 
-obus, 160 ; in -ubus, 129 ; in -e, 
133 (1), 217 6f2; used for pre- 
dicate noun, 331 (1) ; of advan- 
tage, 381 ; of service, 385 ; with 
adj., 388 ff. ; indirect obj,374; 
with comp. of ante, ad, etc., 377 
(1); with comp. with ab, de,etc, 
380; with nouns, 391 (2); with 



434 



INDEX. 



adverbs, 391 (1); of agent, 383; 
of possessor, 384; two datives, 
388; ethical, 382; with verbs 
meaning ''please, displease," etc., 
376 ; of gerund and gerundive, 
551 a; dat. and ace. with certain 
verbs have diff. meanings, 378. 

Days of the week, names of, 660 (6) 
x2. 

De } with abl., 430; with verbs of 
accusing, asking, etc., 367 a ; in- 
stead of part, gen., 358 (5) ; mean- 
ings of, 561 (5). 

Dea, dat. and abl. plur. of, 93 e. 

Debto, imper. indie, for subj., 474 d, 
477 c. 

Deeet, impers., 250 a. 

Declarative sentences, 315 (1). 

Declension, 74 (8) n ; of nouns, 89 
ff. ; 1st decl., 91 ff . ; 2d deck, 95 
ff.; 3d deck, 99 ff. ; 4th deck, 
126 if.; 5th deck, 132, 133; of 
adj., 141 if.; 1st and 2d deck, 
143 ff. ; 3d deck, 148 ff. ; of alius, 
etc., 145 ff . ; of pers. pron., 178 ff. ; 
of reflex, pron , 179 ; of possess. 
pron., 186 ; of demonstr. pron., 
180 ff. ; of rek and interrog. pron., 
183 ff . ; of patrials, 188 a ; end- 
ings of, 90. 

Dedi, 231 d (1). 

Defective, nouns, 134 (3) ; 137 ff. ; 
adj., 155 (5), (6) ; verbs, 249. 

Befit, 249 (10) d. 

Degrees of comparison, 163 (2) ; 
inferior degrees, 164 d ; expres- 
sions for a high degree and the 
highest degree, 164 b, c. 

Dein, deinepps, deinde, pronuncia- 
tion, 35 b. 

Delos, declined, 98. 

Demonstrative pronouns, 177 (2) ; 
declension of, 180 ; distinctions in 
their use, 181, 450 ; used for the 
third personal pronoun, 447 ; 
other uses, 450; "that of" 
omitted, 450 (3) b. 

Denarius, 663 N 1. 

Denominative (s), 252 a; verbs, 
287 ff . 

Dentals, 12 ii. 

Dependent clauses, 314 (2). 

Deponent verbs, 195; conjugation 
of, 223 (last paradigm) ; use of 



participles of, 206 a, 544 a, b ; list 
of in 3d conjugation, 236. 

Depriving, verbs of, with abl., 413, 
414; with dat., 380. 

Derivation of word*, 251 ff. ; simple 
words, 254 ff. ; nouns and adjec, 
254-286 ; verbs, 287-291 ; ' ad- 
verbs, 292, 293. 

Derivative Avords, 252. 
j Dcsc-s, not found in nom. sing., 

155 (6). 
I Desiderative verbs, 290. 

Determinative compounds, 295 b. 

Determining, etc., verbs of, constr. 
with, 486, 489, 491, 533 (2). 

Deterior, compar., 170 (1). 

Deterred, moods with, 493 (2) 6. 

Dens, declined, 97 (G). 

Diaeresis, 8, 6C8 (I), 609 (3); bu- 
colic, 608 a, 614 N. 

Dialysis, 609 (3). 

Diastole, 609 (4). 

Lie, imper., 227 e. 

Lied, with ace. and infln., 533 (1) ; 
withftf, 490 (2) ; introducing both 
direct and indirect discourse, 
516 6. 

Dicto, as abl. after comparatives, 
416 b ; audiens, with dat., 391 (4). 

Dlcunt = they say, 317 (2); dicor, 
with infin. and pred. nom., 534. 

-dicus, adj. in, compared, 168 (2). 

Dido, declined, 124. 

Dies, declined, 132. 

Difference, degree of, abl. of, 415. 

Difiicilis, compar., 167. 

Dijnus, with abk, 418; with gen., 
418 a; with relative and subjunc, 
555 c, cf. 500 (2) ; with supine in 
-u, 555 b; with infin., 536 a. 

Dimeter, 604 ; trochaic, 622 ; iam- 
bic, 629; anapaestic, 630 (3), (4). 

Diminutive, nouns and adj., 259 if. ; 
verbs, 291. 

Diphthongs, 6, 7 ; sounds of, 17 ; 
quantity of, 39; euphonic changes 
of, 60 ; Latin representatives of 
Greek, 38 d n. 

Dipody, 605 (1). 

Dis, form in comp., 302 (2). 

Discessu, as abl. of time, 424 b. 

Disertus, 302 (2). 

Disjunctive conj., 565 ; questions, 
580, 581. 



INDEX. 



435 



Dissimilis, compar., 167. 

Distance, cases expressed by, 423 b. 

Distich, 605 a. 

Distributive numerals, 157 (3) ; 
used for cardinals, 161. 

Diu, compared, 176. 

Do, conjugated, 241 ; not properly 
of 1st conj., 233 r 2. 

-do, noun ending, 272, 273 (3). 

Doced, constr. with, 394 (2) b, 407 b; 
passive conjugated, 223. 

Dominus, declined, 95. 

Do nuts, declined, 130 ; cloinl, loca- 
tive, 130 a, 426 a. 

Donee, moods with, 502 ff. 

Dond, cases with, 379. 

Double consonants, 9 iii., 3 e, 10 a, 
12 a ; questions, 580, 581. 

Doxibled consonants not making 
position iu Plantus, 641. 

Doubtful gender, 83 N. 

Dual number, 86 a. 

Dubitative subjunctive, 475 ; in in- 
direct questions, 475 n. 

Dubito, with quln, 499 a ; with infin., 
499 b ; dubilo an, 579 a. 

Due, imper., 227 e. 

Duim, dins, etc., 241 c. 

Duni, moods with, 502 ff . ; in clauses 
of proviso, 504 ; nedum, 482 d. 

Dtunmodo, in clauses of proviso, 
504. 

Duo, declined, 160 ; duum for duo- 
rum, 160 a. 

-dus, adj. ending, 283 ; -ndus, gerun- 
dive ending, 214. 

E, sound of, 16 ; elided in est, 18 h ; 
euphonic changes of, 59, 63 ; af- 
finity for r, 59 a ; representing e:, 
38 d ; old dative in, 133 ( 1 ), 217 
F 2, b f. 1 ; nom. and ace. plur. 
of Greek nouns in, 98 c; adverbs 
in, 174, 557 a; e as prep., 430 ; 
quantity of, 46, 225 ; parasitic, 64. 

Early versification, peculiarities of, 
635 ff. 

Ecce, con) pounded with demonstr. 
pron., 180 b. 

Ecquis, declension of, 185 b. 

EctUpsis, 609 ( 1 ) c. 

Edim, edls, etc., 247. 

Edo, conjugated, 247. 

Effieri, 249 (10) d. 



Egeo, indigeo, cases with, 414, 414 a. 

Ego, declined, 178. 

Ei, diphthong, 7 ; how pronounced, 

17 ; quantity of the e in 5th deck, 

133 (3). 
et, how represented in Latin, 38 d, 

38 N. 
-eis, ending of fern, patronymics, 
_277, 278 (2). 
Eiusmodl, etc., 180/1 
-ela, abstract ending, 274 (1). 
Elegiac verse, 615. 
-el is, adjec. ending, 262. 
Elision, 69, 609 (1). 
-ellus, -a, -urn, diminutive endings, 

259 (3). 
-em, ace. ending in 3d deck, 90 f. 
Emphasis, as influenced by order of 

words in the sentence, 584, 585, 
_593 ; repeated, 599 c/ n 2. 
En, interject., 583. 
Enclitics, 35 ; quantity of enclit. 

particles, 45 a, 46 f ; uses of the 

latter annexed to pronouns, 179 6, 

180 c, 186^,- que, 562 (2); re, 

565 b ; ne, 574, 575 b. 
Enim, use of, 571 ; position of, 

590 a. 
-ensis, adj. ending, 279. 
-entissimus, superk in, 168. 
-enus, adj. ending, 265. 
Ed, conjugated, 248. 
Ed, etc., pronouns as adverbs, 187 ; 

with part, gen., 355 (3). 
-eos, gen. ending of Greek nouns, 

98. 
Epicene nouns, 84. 
Epistolary use of tenses, 470 (1). 
Epulum, plur. of, 135 (4). 
Eques, etc., used collectively, 346 a, 

435. 
Equidem, 308 ; use of, 572 a. 
-er, nouns in, of 2d deck, 95, 97 (1), 

(2) ; of 3d deck, 103 (especially 

103 e), 106 e, 108 6; adj. in, of 

2d deck, 143, 144, cf. 145 ; of 3d 

deck, 150, 151 ; superlative of 

adj. in, 166 ; passive infin. in, 

214 f. 
Erga, with ace, 429 ; chiefly of 

persons, 429 b ; meanings of, 

559 (9). 
-ere, ending of perf. indie, 213 (2), 

222. 



436 



INDEX. 



Ergo, use of, 570 ; with gen., 

404 (3) b. 
-es, quantity of, final, 50, 50 (2). 
■es, -itis, noun ending, 101 c ; quan- 
_ tity of, 50 (2). 
-es, ending of Greek nouns, 94. 
Escit, 215 c. 
Esse, conjugated, 215 ; omitted, 

537; with pred. gen., 357; with 

dat. of possessor, 384. 
-esso (-isso), intensive verb ending, 

2SS (4). 
Et, use of, 562 (1); et ipse, etc., 

573 a ; connecting last two terms 

of a series, 564 b ; et . . . et, 563 ; 

neque . . . et, 565 d. 
Et non, 571 a. 
Etenim, 571. 
Etiam, 573. 

Etsl, etiam si, moods with, 478. 
-etum, noun ending, 276 (1). 
Eu, diphthong, 7 ; sound of, 17 ; in 

voc. sing, of Greek nouns, 98. 
Euphonic change, A before 58 ; 

vowels, 58 ff. ; consonants, 65 ff. ; 

arrangement of words, 599 a. 
-ens, -ens, adjective endings, 268, 

268 a. 
-ev-, perf. stem ending, 218 (1) b. 
Ex (e), with abl., 430; instead of 

part, gen., 358 (5) ; meanings, 

561 (6) ; form in comp., 301 (5). 
Exchanging, verbs of, cases with, 

408 6. 
Exclamations, ace. in, 400; nom. 

in, 349; in fin. in, 535. 
Exclamatory sentences, 315 (3). 
Existence and non-existence, mood 

with expressions of, 501 a. 
Fxlex, 155 (6). 
Expecting, verbs of, future infin. 

with, 533 (5). 
Exspeclaiione, as abl. after compara- 
tives, 416 b. 
Exterior, compared, 170 (2). 
Extra, with ace, 429; meanings of, 

559 (10). 

Far., imper., 227 e ; fac nt with sub- 
junc, 527 d ; fac ne, 529 e. 

Facilis, compar., 167 ; facile, as ad- 
verb, 174 c. 

Facio, compounds of, 246 a, 298 b; 
fid, as passive of, 246. 



Fame, abl. of fames, hunger, 115. 
Familias, with pater, etc., 93 c. 
Fdri, conjugated, 249 (6). 
Fas, indeclinable, 137 (1) ; with su- 
pine in -u, 555. 
F^dsti dies, 660 (6). 
Favor, etc., verbs meaning to, with 

dat., 376. 
Faxo, faxim, faxem, 228 d. 
Fearing, verbs of, with at, ne, etc., 

492 ; with infin., 492 b. 
Feeling, verbs of, mood with, 533 

(4). 
Feet, in poetry, 600 ; different kinds 

of, 602. 
Felix, declined, 154. 
Fer, imper., 227 e. 
Few, conjugated, 245. 
Festi dies, 660 (6). 
Festivals, plural names of, 139 (1) ; 

list of important, 660 (6) N 1. 
-feus, adj. in, compared, 168 (1). 
Fide, as abl. after comparatives, 

416 b. 
Fido, semi-deponent, 196 ; with abl., 

420 ; with dat., 420 a. 
Figures of versification, 609 ff. 
Filia, dat. and abl. plural, 93 e. 
Filius, voc. sing., 97 (5). 
Filling, verbs of, with abl., 409 ; 

with gen., 409 a. 
Final, clauses withwf, etc., 482 (1) ; 

with qui, etc., 482 (2) ; with quo, 

482 (3); substantive, 484 ff . ; 

syllables, quantity of, 46 ff. 
Finite verb, 202 (I*). 
Fid, conjugated, 246. 
First, decl. of nouns, 91 ff. ; of adj., 

143 ff. ; conjug., 218 ff. (especially 

222, 223). 
Flocci, as gen. of price, 372 a. 
Forem, fore, etc, 215, 215c; fore 

ut, 51*7 (2), 538 b. 
Forts, 426 (2) a. 
For s, forte, 137 (4). 
Forsitan, foriasse, use of, 579 b. 
Fractional expressions, 161 k. 
Freeing, verbs of, with abl., 413 

(1). 
Frenum, plur., 135 (3). 
Frequentative verbs, 288 (1), (2) ; 

double formations, 288 (3). 
Fretus, with abl., 418 ; with dat., 

418 a. 



INDEX. 



437 



Fricatives, 11 a. 

Fructus, declined, 126. 

Fru'l'i, compared, 169. 

Fruor, with abl., 419 ; with ace, 

419 a ; gerundive use of, 419 a n, 

550 a. 
Fitam,fuas, etc., 215 c. 
Ful, etc., with pert', part., 229 (3). 
Fungor, with abl., 419; with ace, 

4i9 a ; gerundive use of, 419 a n, 

550 a. 
Furd, first person wanting, 235 v. f. 
Future, tense, 461 ; used for imper., 

527 d; how supplied in subj., 

f before 472 ; impera., use of, 

527 b, c; in fin. formation of, 211 

a ; used with verbs of " hoping," 

etc., 533 (5) ; particip., 206, 545 ; 

denoting purpose, 545 a; with 

sum, 229 (1). 
Future perfect tense, 462 (3); old 

form iu -so, 228 d ; frequency of 

use of, 471 n. 
Futurum esse, fuisse, ut, with subj , 

517 (2), 538 b. 
Fuvimxis, etc., 215 c. 

G, sound of, 18; euphonic changes 
of, 66 ii., vii., 69 i., ii. (1), 71. 

Galliambic verse, 657. 

(landed, semi-deponent, 196 a. 

Gems, gender of names of, 81 ii. 

Gender, 78 ff. ; rules of, 80 ff ; nat- 
ural and grammatical, 79; in 1st 
decl., 92; in 2d dccl., 95, 96; in 
3d decl., 118 ff. ; in 4th decl., 126, 
127 ; in 5th decl., 132 ; epicene 
nouns, 84 ; common, 83 ; doubtful, 
83 N. 

Gener, declined, 95. 

General, relatives, 185 ; conditions, 
477 d ; truths expressed by pres- 
ent, 463 ; by perfect, 463 a. 

Genitive, 88 (2) ; old forms, 93 a, e, 
d, 97 (7), 128 (1), (2), 133 (1), 147 
(3), 180 a; with nouns, 350 ff . ; 
subjective and objective, 353; poss. 
adj. used for, 358 (1) a: dat. used 
for, 358 (3); of characteristic or 
quality, 356 ; of measure, 423 a ; 
governing word omitted, 353 d, e ; 
predicate, 357; two gen., 353 c; 
with causa, etc., 404 b ; with. opus, 
417 a; partit., 354; of source, 



352 (1); with dignus, 418 a; of 
price, 371, 372 ; with verbs of ac- 
cusing, etc., 367 ; of reminding, 
etc., 366; of pitying, 364 (1); 
miseret, etc., 364 (2) ; with verbs 
of abundance, 409 a; of the pen- 
alty, 367 a ; of gerund and gerun- 
dive, 548 ff., 551. 

Genius, voc. sing., 97 (5). 

Gentile names, 279. 

Genus, in phrase id genus, 398 b. 

Georgicon, 98 a. 

Gerund, 204 ; syntax of, 548 ff . 

Gerundive, 207 "; syntax of, 548 ff . ; 
of utor, fruor, etc., 550 a ; 2d 
periphrastic conjug., 229 (2); to 
express purpose, 551, 552 (2) ; 
neuter used impersonally govern- 
ing a. case, 552 (3). 

Glyconic verse, 644 ff. 

Glyeonic-pherecratic verse, 648. 

Gm and gn making preceding vowel 
Ion?, 41. 

Gnomic perfect, 463 a. 

-go, noun ending, 272, 273 (3). 

Grammatical figures, 659. 

Gidtid, causa, etc., with gen., 404 b. 

Greek ace. so-called (synecdochical), 
398 a. 

Greek, nouns, n before 94 ; 1st decl., 
94 ; 2d decl., 98 ; 3d decl., 124, 
125 ; diphthongs, how represented 
in Latin, 38 d n. 

Grimm's law, 308 N 2. 

Gutturals, 12 i f. 

H, its nature, 9 a ; no effect on 

quantity, 38 a. 
Habeo, with perf. part., 547 c; fut. 

impera. for present, 527 b. 
Hadria, masc. gen., 92. 
Happening, verbs of, with ut, etc., 

494 ff. 
Hand, use of, 557 g. 
Have, conjugated, 249 (10) a. 
Hemistich., 605 a. 
Hephthemimeris, 605 d. 
Heroic verse, 614 f. 
Heteroelites, 134 (2), 136. 
Heterogeneous nouns, 134 (1), 135. 
Hexameter verse, 604, 614. 
Hiatus, 609 (1) b. 
Hie, declined, 180; distinguished 

from iste, iile, etc., 181 ; other 



438 



INDEX. 



uses of, 447, 450; hie, as adverb, 

187. 
Hidden quantities, 37 n 2. 
Eiemps, 70, 101 r. 
Him, her, etc., how expressed in 

Latin, 179 a, 447. 
Hipponactean verse, 650. 
Hindering, verbs of, case with, 413 ; 

moods with, 493 (2). 
Historical tenses, 200 (2) ; present, 

466; perfect, 199 b, 462 (1) b; 

infinitive, 530 a. 
Honor, declined, 107. 
Hoping, verbs of, tense of infin. 

with, 533 (5). 
Horace, meters of, 645 ff. 
Hortatory, sentences, 315 (4) a ; 

subj., 472. 
Sunn, loc, 426 a. 
Huius, as genitive of price, 372 a; 

huius modi, 180 f. 
Hypereatalectic verse, 605 c. 
Hypermeter, 605 c. 
Hypothetical sentences. See Condi- 
tional sentences. 

/, used as both vowel and conso- 
nant, 3 b; vowel sound of, 16; 
consonant sound of, 18 ; represent- 
ing et, 38 d n ; dropped, 63, 69 
(4) ; i for ii, 3 /, 97 (4) ; quantity 
of, 38 (1), (2), 46, 225; i- stems', 
108, 150 ff. ; tendency of adj. to 
pass into, 260 f 1 ; in abl. sing, of 
3d decl., 114; inserted in certain 
present stems, 230/7 effect of con- 
sonant i on quantity of preceding 
vowel, 41 ; -ia, abstract ending, 
273 (1). 

Iaao, compounds of, 3f, 299 a. 

-iacus, adj. ending, 268. 

Iambic verse, 623 ff. ; iambico-dac- 
tylic verse, 654 (2), (3); iambic 
strophe, 653. 

lamdudum, with pres. and imperf., 
467. 

•ias, fern, patronym. ending, 278 (3). 

-Ibam, for iebam, in 4th conj., 227 c. 

Ibidem, 308. 

-ibo, fut. ending in 4th conj., 227 d. 

-icius, icius, adjective endings, 268. 

Ictus, 606. 

Id, as antecedent, 450 (3) ; id genus, 
id temporis, etc., 398 b. 



Idem, declined, 182 ; idem and isdem 
as no in. plur., 182 a. 

Ides of the month, 660 (4). 

-ides, -ides, -iades, patronymic end- 
ings, 277, 278. 

lecur, declension of, 111 (4). 

-itr, passive infin. ending, 214 F. 

•ies, ending of numeral adverbs, 
156 (4), 292 (1); nouns of 5ih 
decl. in, 133 a. 

lesus, 98 d. 

Igitur, use of, 570 ; position of, 
570 a, 590 a. 

-il, noun ending, 262 a. 

■He, noun ending, 276 (3). 

-His, adj. ending, 262. 

Illative particles, 570. 

Ilk, declined, 180 ; distinguished 
from hie, iste, etc., 181 ; other uses 
of, 447, 450. 

Illinsmodi, 180/ 

-Hid, diminutive verb ending, 291. 

-illus, -a, -urn, diminutive endings, 
259 (3). 

-im, ace. ending in 3d decl., 113 ; 
in pres. subj., 215, 216, 241 c, 
242 ff. ; adverbs in, 557 b. 

Imbecillus, 155 (7). 

Inuno, use of, 582 b. 

Imperative, mood, 198 (3) ; sen- 
tences, 315 (4) ; endings of, 
213 (3) ; use of, 527; subj. for, 
472, 515 (3), 529. 

Imperfect tense, 461 ; continued or 
custom, action, 464 ; epistolary, 
470 (1) ; other uses, 470 (3), (4) ; 
of oportet, etc., 474 d y 477 c. 

Impero, constr. with, 487, 489 (4). 

Impersonal verbs, 250, 318; pas- 
sive use of intransitives, 194, 
318 (3), 387; clause as subject of, 
318 (4), a. 

Impetus, declined, 137 (4). 

Impure syllables, 25 n 2. 

-imus, ending of temporal adj., 
286 (3). 

In-, neg. prefix, 295 n, 299, 300 N, 
301 (6) a. 

In, prep, with ace. and abl., 431 ; 
meanings of, 560 (1 ) ; with names 
of towns, 427; with words in app. 
with a locative, 426 h; form in 
comp., 301 (6). 

-ina, noun ending, 276 (2). 



INDEX. 



439 



Inceptive or inchoative verbs, 289 ; 

quantity of vowel before sc in, 

237 a. 
Incomplete actions, tenses of, 461. 
Inde, enclitic, 35 b. 
Indeclinable nouns, 137 (1 ) ; adjec, 

155 (5). 
Indefinite pronouns, 177 (6) ; de- 

cleusion of, 183 ff. ; order of defi- 

niieness, 185 d ; uses of, 454 ff. ; 

subject omitted, 317 (2), (3) ; you 

= any one, 472 a, 477 d (1), 

529 ( 1 ) 6. 
Independent clauses, 314 (1). 
Indicative mood, 197, 198 (1) ; in 

apodosis of conditions contrary to 
fact, 477 c. 

Indiged, cases with, 414, 414 a. 

Ind'ignus. See Diynus. 

Indirect discourse, 514 ff.; use of 
tenses in, 516, 524, 525 ; questions, 
518; indicative in early Latin, 
518 c ; with si, 518 d; distin- 
guished from relative clauses,. 
518 e n; reflexive, 445 (2) b, 
448 (2). 

Induo, in middle voice, 193 a. 

-vie, -ione y fern, patronym. endings, 

_ 277 b. 

Inferior, compared, 170 (2) ; followed 
by dative or by quam, with abl., 
4*16 e. 

Infinitive, 197 n, 203 ; as noun 
and verb, n before 530; as sub- 
ject, 531 ; as object, 533 ; as pred. 
Horn., 531 b ; complementary, 
532 ; use of tenses of, 538, 539 ; 
subject of, 530 ; historical use, 

530 a. ; in indirect discourse, I 
515 ff. ; in exclam., 535 ; poetical 
with adj., 536 a ; denoting pur- | 
pose, 536 ; with prep., 536 b ; \ 
perf. for present, 539 a, b ; 

_ omitted, 537. 

In fit, 249 (10) d. 

Inflection. 2 ii., 54 ff. 

Infra, with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 

559 (II) 
Initio, as abl. of time, 424 b. 
Iniurid, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). 
Innitor, with abl , 420. 
Inquam, conjugated, 249 (5) ; use of, 
_ 516 b. 
Instar, indeclin. noun, 137 (1). 



Instrument, abl. of, 407. 

Instrumental case, 88 6. 

Fnsuesco, cases with, 421. 

Intensive pronouns, 177 (3) ; de- 
clined, 182 ; use of, 448 ff. ; verbs, 
288. 

Intention, denoted by fut. part., 
545 a. 

Inter, with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 
559 (12); inter se, etc., for reci- 
procal relations, 449 (1). 

Inter ed loci, 355 (5), a. 

Interest, with gen., 368 ; with med, 
tad, etc., 369. 

Inter fieri, interfiat, 249 (10) d. 

Interior, compared, 170 (2). 

Interim, position of, 590 a. 

Interjections, 74 (8) ; list of, 583 ; 
use of, 583 a ; with nom., 349 (1) 
a ; with dat., 391 (3) ; with ace, 
400; with voc , 402 a, b; 6, not 
elided, 609 (I) a. 

Interrogative sentences, 315 (2) ; 
particles, 574 ff. ; pronouns, 
177 (5) ; declined, 183 ff . ; as 
connectives, 591. 

Intra, with ace, 429; meanings, 
559 (13). 

Intransitive verbs, 191 ; impersonal 
use of in pass., 194, 318 (3), 387. 

-inus, adj ending, 265. 

Involuntary agent, 407 a. 

-id, noun ending, 274 (2) ; verbs in, 
230 f; quantity of their root- 
vowel, 52. 

locus, plur. of, 135 (1). 

Ionic verse, 633, 634. 

Ipse, declined, 182 ; use of, 445 (2), b, 
448, 449 (1) ; inter ipsos, 449 (1) ; 

_ in peculiar apposition, 325 e. 

Iri, use of. with supine to form fut. 
pass, infin., 211 a, 554 (1). 

Irrational feet, 618 (1 ), 643 a. 

Irregular verbs, 239 ff. 

-is, quantity of, final, 50; fern, 
patronym. ending, 278 (1) ; -is, in 
Gentile adj., 279 ; plur. ending in 
nouns of 3d decl., 117; in adj., 
155 (4) ; in dat. and abl. plur. of 
Greek nouns of 3d decl. in -a, 
125 (4). 

Is, declined, 180; as antecedent, 
450 (3) ; for 3d pers. pron., 179 a, 
447. 



440 



INDEX. 



Islands, gender of names of, 81 ii. ; 

locative use of names of, 426. 
-isso, intensive verb ending, 288 (4). 
Iste, declined, 180; distinguished 

from lac, ilk, etc., 181 (3) ; other 

uses of, 447, 450. 
Istlc, declined, 180 e. 
Istiusmodi, 180 f. 
Ita, use of, 557 d, e. 
Itaque, use of, 570. 
-iter, adverbs in, 174, 175, 557 a. 
Iterative verbs, 288 a. 
-ito, frequentative verb ending, 

288 (2). 
-it.us, adverbs in, 292 (3). 
-itus, adjective ending, 280. 
•turn, noun ending, 273 (1) ; ending 

of gen. plur. in 3d declension 

nouns, 109 ff. ; adj., 150 ff. 
lure, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). 
-ius, adjective ending, 268, 279. 
-ius, gen. sing, ending, 146. 
lubeo, moods with, 489 (4), 533 (3). 
luppiter, declension of, 111 (3). 
lurdtus, active sense of, 206 a. 
Ius iurandum, apparent compound, 

300 a. 
lussu, 137 (4) a. 
lusto, after comparatives, 416 b. 
Iuvo, case with, 376 a. 
luxtd, with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 

559 (14). 
-ivus, adj. ending, 283. 

K, early disappearance of, 3 c. 

Kalends of the month, 660 (4). 

Kindred, constructions with app , 
326 ; with pred. noun, 331 ; with 
certain gen., 358, 362 ; words in 
Latin and English, 308 n (1); 
consonants interchanged, 71. 

Knowing, verbs of, moods with, 
533 (1). 

L, euphonic changes of, 71, 72. 

Labials, 12 iii. 

Lac, nom. formation, 103 b. 

Lampas, declined, 124. 

Lapis, declined, 102. 

Last place in sentence seemingly 

emphatic, 599 d. 
Latin grammar, defined, 1 ; divisions 

of, 2. 
Letters, division of, 4 ff. ; sounds of, 



15 ff. ; representing numerals, 
162 ; as abbreviations of prae- 
nomina, 666 d. 

Libet, impers., 250 a. 

Libro, without prep., 426 d. 

Licet, impersonal verb, 250 a ; case 
of predicate word with, 531 c; 
indie, in conditions contrary to 
fact, 477 c (cf. 474 d) ; as con- 
junction meaning " although/' 480 
(1), 480 N. 

-limus, superl. in, 167. 

Linguals, 12 ii. f. 

Liquet, impers., 250 a. 

Liquids, 10 (1) ; liquid stems, 101, 
103, 104. 

•lis, adj. ending, 260. 

Locative case, 88 a ; in 1st decl., 
93; in 2d decl., 97 (3); in 3d 
decl., 112 ; domui beside domi, 
130 a, 426 (2) a; of names of 
towns, etc., 426 (2) ; absorbed by 
ablative, 403 f ; animl with verbs 
and adj., 426 (2) b. 

Locuples, gen. plur. of, 155 (3) a. 

Locus, plur. of, 135 (1) ; as abl. of 
place, 426 (2) c; with gen. in- 
stead of pred. noun, 331 (3) ; 
intered loci, etc., 355 (o) a. 

Logacedic verse, 643, 644. 

Long/us, with or without quam, 
416 c. 

Ludh, as abl. of time, 424 b. 

-Ius, -la. -luin, nom. and adj. ending, 
257 ff. ; dimin., 259 ff. 

M, feeble pronunciation when final, 

18 d ; elision in verse, 609(1); 

euphonic change of, 66 v. 
M actus, macte, 155 (6). 
Magis and n.axime, uses to form 

compar. and superl., 173. 
Magnus, compared, 169 ; as gen. of 

price, 372 ; as abl. of price, 408 a. 
Making, etc!, verbs of, with two ace, 

394 (1). 
Maid, conjugated, 244; mdlim, mdl- 

lem, in expressions of wishing,. 

473 c, 491, 527 d ; mood with, 

487, 489 ff . 
Mains, compared, 169. 
Mdne, 137 (1). 
Manner, abl. of, 410 ; adverbs of, 

557 a (alsoN 2), 557 d. 



INDEX. 



441 



Masculine, gender, 78, 80 ; caesura, 
608 b ; adj. used as nouns, 438 (1), 

Material, nouns, 76 iv. ; adj., 268; 
abl. of, 405 c. 

May, how expressed in Latin, 474, 
474 d. 

Med, tua, etc., with refert and interest, 
369. 

Means, abl. of, 407 ; persons re- 
garded as, 407 a. 

Measure(s), ace. of, 423 a; ex- 
pressed by gen. of charac, 356, 
423 a ; abl. of, 415 ; Roman tables 
of, 685 (cf. also 632). 

Med, for me, 179 d. 

Meditative verbs, 288 a. 

Medial vowels, 5f2. 

Medius, use to denote " middle of," 
442. 

Meminl, conjugated, 249 (2); perf. 
as pres., 471 a ; use of imperative, 
527 b; with gen. ,385; with ace., 
365 a, b; tense of infin. with, 
533 a. 

-men, -mentum, noun endings, 275. 

Mens, gen. with in mentem venit, 
353 d. 

-met, enclitic suffix attached to pron., 
179 b, 18S (2) b. 

Metre(s), 600; kinds of, 603; dac- 
tylic, 614 ff . ; iambic, 618, 623 ff. ; 
trochaic, 618 ff . ; anapaestic, 630 ; 
logaoedic, 643 ff. ; elegiac, 615 ; 
Ionic, 633, 634 ; bacchiac and 
cretic, 631 ; Sapphic, 646 ; Ado- 
nic, 644; choriambic, 632 ; choli- 
ambic, 628; Alcaic, 647; Ascle- 
piadean, 645 ; Saturnian, 642 ; 
Galliambic, 657 ; Phalaecian, 649 ; 
miscellaneous, 650 ff. ; of Horace 
and Catullus, 645 ff 

Metathesis, 72, 659 (20). 

Metrical accent, 608. 

Metuere, cases with, 378; moods 
with, 492, 492 b. 

Meus, 186.^ 

Mi, for mihi, 179 d ; as voc. of meus, 
186 (2). 

Middle voice, 193 a, b ; with ace, 
395. 

Mile, Roman, 665 (I). 

Miles, declined, 102; used collec- 
tively, 346 (I) a, 435. 



Militiae, as loc, 426 a. 

Mllle, declension of, 160; use of, 

161 g, h. 
Million, how expressed in Latin, 

161 h ; a million sesterces, 663 N 3. 
-mini, ending of 2d person plural, 

213, 214. 
-mind, old imperative ending, 227 f. 
Minns, with or without quoin, 416 c ; 

with minime, to indicate inferior 

degree of a quality, 164 d; mini- 
me used for "no," 582a; as gen. 

of price, 372; as abl. of price, 

408 a. 
Miror, conjugated, 223. 
Mirum quam or quantum, 518 b. 
Misereor, miserescd, miseret, with 

gen., etc., 364. 
Miseror, with ace, 365 a. 
Mhsum fac>5, 547 c, examples. 
Mil is, declined, 152 ; compared, 

165. 
Mixed conjugation of various verbs, 

226. 
Moderari, with ace. and dat. in diff. 

senses, 378. 
-modi, annexed to pronouns, 180 f, 

185 a. 
Modd, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). 
Modd, "provided that," with subj , 

504 ; nda modd, etc., 563 (2) ; 

modd . . . modd, 563 (1) b. 
Moned, conjugated, 222, 223 ; cases 

with, 366, 367 c; moods with, 

487, 490. 
Money, Roman, 662, 663. 
Monoineter, 604. 
Monosyllables, quantity of, 45, 47 

ff . ; regarded as accented, 31; 

certain not elided, 609 (I) a. 
Months, gender of names of, 80 ii. ; 

division of, 660 (4). 
Mood and tense signs, 224. 
Moods, 197; use of indie , 198 (1); 

use of subj., 198 (2). 472 ff. ; use 

of impera., 198 (3), 527 ff. ; infin. 

sometimes regarded as, 197 n. 
Mora, 26 a, 601. 
More, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). 
Morior, irreg. infin. of, 227 b. 
Motion, aec. of, 425, 426; implied, 

426 /; verbs of, case with, 377 

(3) ; with supine to denote pur- 
pose, 554 (2). 



442 



INDEX. 



Multiplicatives, 286 (1). 

Multare, constr. with, 367 b. 

Multus, compared, 169 ; multum and 
multo, as adverbs, 557 b, c; mulii 
as gen. of price, 372. 

Munijicus, compared, 168 a. 

-mus, adjective ending, 282. 

Mutes, 9 ii. ; divisions of, 11, 12 ; 
mute and liquid producing com- 
mon quantity of preceding vowel, 
29 ; but not in early versification, 
641 b. 

Mute stems, 101, 103. 

Muto, cases with, 408 b. 

N, before palatals, 18 c; before s, 
18 e ; euphonic changes of, 66 vi., 
69 (3) ; inserted in the present stem 
of certain verbs, 230 d. 

Nam, namque, etc., 571. 

Names, of persons, 277, 278, 666 ; 
of nations, 279. 

Nasals, 10 i. 

Natu, 137 (4) a. 

Ndtus, with abl., 405. 

Naucl, as gen. of price, 372 a. 

Nd and nt, making preceding vowel 
short, 42. 

-ne, enclitic, 35 a ; uses of, 574 ff . 

Ne, negative, 557 g ; quantity of its 
compounds, 307 ; with imperative, 
527 a ; with hortatory subjunctive, 
472 ; in wishes, 473 ; nedum, 482 
d ; ne non, 492 ; in clauses of 
purpose, 482 (1); of intended ob- 
ject, 483 b ; with quidem, 563 (2) 
6,572 b; as affirmative particle, 
583 e. 

Nee . . . et (que), 565 d ; necne, 581 ; 
neque rather than et non, 571 a. 

Necessario, after comparatives, 416 
b. 

Nedum, with subj., 482 d. 

Nefas, indeclin., 137 (1); with su- 
pine in -u, 555. 

Ne fasti dies, 660 (6). 

Negatives, 557 g ; nee ullus, etc., 
for et nullus, etc , 571 a. 

Nemo, declension of, 137 (3). 

Nequa rather than nequae, 185 b, c. 

Nequam, indeclin., 155 (5) ; com- 
pared, 169. 

Nequeo, conjugated, 249 (8). 

Ne . . . quidem, 563 a, b, 572 6. 



Nequis, declension of, 185 c. 

Nescid an, 579 a; nescid quis, etc., 
518 a. 

Neuter, declension of, 145, 146 ; use 
of, 460. 

Neuter, nouns, of 2d decl., 95 ff. ; 
of 3d decl., 103 ff., 118 ff.; adj. 
and pron. with part, gen., 355 
(5) ; pron. as ace. of spec, 398 
b; verbs (see Intransitive). 

Neve or neu, after id or ne, 482 (1) ; 
with impera., 527 a. 

Nihil and nihil urn, 137 (1) a; nihili, 
as gen. of price, 372 a; nihilo, 
as abl. of price, 408 a. 

Nimium quantum, 518 b. 

Nisi, 30S. 

Nitor, with abl., 420. 

Nix, stem, 101 d. 

No, how expressed, 582. 

Nolo, conjugated, 243 ; noli, with 
infm. for prohibitions, 529 c; no- 
li m, nollem, in expressions of wish- 
ins:, 473 c, 491, 527 d; mood with, 
489 ff . 

Nomen est mihi, 326 a. 

Nominative case, 88 (l) ; formation 
in 3d decl., 100 ff . ; as subject, 
316 ; other uses, 349 ; with opus, 
417 a. 

Non, etc., 557 g; omitted after non 
modo, 563 (2) b; non modd . . . sed 
etiam, etc., 563 (2) ; non quo, non 
quia, etc., 521 ; non dubito, 499 
a, b. 

Nones of the month, 660 (4). 

Npnne, 575. 

Nos, for eqo, 443. 

Noster 2 declined, 186 (2). 

Nostras, declined, 188 a. 

Nostrl and nostrum, use of, 178 r. 

Not and nor, how expressed in pur- 
pose clauses, etc., 482 (1), 527 a. 

Nouns, 74 (1); classes of, 75, 76; 
defective, 134 (3), 137 ff.; sing. 
and plur. in diff. meanings, 140; 
heteroclite, 134 (2), 136; hetero- 
geneous, 134 (1), 135 ; derivation 
of, 254 ff. ; peculiarities in uses 
of, 432 ff. 

-ns, particip. and adj. ending, 154; 
constr. with partic. in, 361 ; mak- 
ing long quantity of preceding 
vowel, 41. 



INDEX. 



443 



Nuho, with dat., 381 a. 

Nullus, decl. of, 145, 148 ; supply- 
ing - cases of nemo, 137 (3) ; for 
non ullus, etc., 455 a. 

Nam, 576, 579. 

Number, in nouns, 85 ; in verbs, 
201 ; of verb with collective 
noun, 346 (l) ; with two or more 
nouns, 319 ff. 

Numerals, 156 ff. ; cardinal, 157 
(1) ; ordinal, 157 (2) ; distributive, 
157 (3) ; placed in rel. clause, 341 
c ; letters for, 162 ; adverbs, 157 
(4); multiplicative, 286 (1); pro- 
portional, 286 (2) ; temporal, 286 
(3). 

Nummus, 663. 

Numquis, 185 b. 

Nundinae, 135 (4) ; quantity of -u, 
42 a ; -nus, adj. ending, 263 ff., 
279, 282; in adj. of time, 264; 
in distributives, 265 b. 

0, sound of, 16 ; euphonic changes 
of, 59 ff. ; quantity of final, 46; 
retained after ?' and u, 59 b, c; as 
interjection, 583 ; as noun ending, 
103 c, 271 (1). 

Oaths, 583 b. 

Ob, with ace, 429; meanings, 559 
(15) ; form in comp., 301 (7). 

Object, direct, 392 ff . ; indirect, 373, 
374. 

Objective genitive, 353 (2). 

Oblique cases, 88 c. 

Obliviscor, with gen., etc., 365. 

Oci or, compared, 170 (3). 

Octondrius, iambic, 626; trochaic, 
621. 

Odi, conjugated, 249 (1). 

Oe, diphthong, 7 ; how pronounced, 

_17. 

Ohe, interjection, 583 ; quantitv of, 
38 (2). ' 

Oi, old diphthong, la; how pro- 
nounced, 17. 

-olens, -olentus, adjective endings, 
285. 

Glhis, for Me, 180 a. 

-olus, -a, -urn, diminutive endings, 
259 (1). 

-cm (-dm), for -urn, -urn, 97 (7). 

-on, Greek noun ending, 98. 

-on, for -drum, 98 a. 



Open syllables, 25 n 3 ; vowels, 5 

F 2. 
Oplnione, after comparatives, 416 b. 
Oportet, impersonal, 250 a; indie. 

in contrary to fact conditions, 477 

c (cf. 474 d). 
Oppidum, in app. with names of 

towns, 426 g, h. 
[Ops], declined, 137 (4). 
Optative subjunctive, 473. 
Opus, work, declined, 107. 
Opus, need, with abl., 417 ; with 

other cases, 417 a; with supine in 

-u, 555. 
-or, noun ending, 255 (2). 
Ordlio obllqua, 514 ff. ; tenses in, 

525. 
Order of words, 584 ff. 
Ordinal numbers, 157 (2) ; in ex- 
pressions of time, 161 i. 
Origin, participles of, with abl., 

405 ; denoted by gentile adjectives, 

279 ; by patrials, 188. 
Orior, irreg. forms of, 227 a. 
Orpheus, declined, 98. 
Oro, with two ace, 394 (2) ; moods 

with, 486. 
-os, quantity of final, 50 ; for -us in 

second deck, 59 b, c, 95. 
■os, noun ending, 106 a, 255 (2). 
Oos-, derivatives from, 255 n. 
Vs (ossis), declension of, 110. 
-osus, adj. ending, 285. 
Ou, old diphthong, 7 a. 
Ovat, conjugated, 249 (10) e. 

P, euphonic changes of, 66 iii., vi. ; 
parasitic, 70. 

Pace, as abl. of time, 424 b. 

Paenitet, impers., 250 a; with gen., 
etc., 364 (2), 365 b. 

Palatals, 12 i. 

Panthus, voc. of, 98 c. 

Paradigms, of nouns, 1st deck, 91; 
2d deck, 95; 3d deck, cons, 
stems, 102, 104, 107 ; i- stems, 
109 ; peculiar nouns, 110 ; 4th 
deck, 126; 5th deck, 132; Greek 
nouns, 1st deck, 94; 2d deck, 98; 
3d deck, 124; adject., 1st and 2d 
deck, 143, 146 ; 3d decl. of three 
endings, 150 ; of two endings, 
152; of one ending, 154; pers. 
pron., 178; demons, pron., 180; 



444 



INDEX. 



r?l., interrog., indef. pron., 184, 
185; intensive pron., 182; pos- 
sessive pron., 186 ; patrials, 188 ; 
sum, 215; possum, 216; regular 
verbs, 222, 223 ; irreg. (unthe- 
matic) verbs, 239 ff. ; defective 
verbs, 249. 

Parasitic, vowels, 64; consonants, 
70, 101 d. 

Paratus, with infin., 536 (2). 

Paroemiae verse, 630 (4). 

Pars, use of, in fractional expres- 
sions, 161 k ; in abl. of place with- 
out prep., 426 c. 

Participles, uses of, 542 ff. ; as ad- 
jectives, 546 ; with gen. or ace, 
361 ; perf. part, with sum, 229 
(3) ; with habeo, 547 c ; future 
part, with sum, 229 (1) ; l or e in 
abl. of pres. part., 155 (2) ; of de- 
pon. verbs, 206 a, 544 a, b ; agree- 
ment of, with app. or pred. noun, 
341; in abl. absol., 422, 422 d ; 
used for clauses, 547 ; denoting 
origin, 405 ; for English nouns in 
" ing," 547 b. 

Particles, 73, 562 ff. 

Partitive genitive, 354, 355 ; appo- 
sition, 325 c. 

Parts of speech, 73 ff. 

Parvos (-us), compared, 169 ; parol, 
as gen. of price, 372 ; parvo, as 
abl. of price, 408 a. 

Passive voice, 193 (3) ; impersonal 
of intraus. verbs, 194, 387 ; sec- 
ond accusative retained in, 394 
(2)c. 

Paler, declined, 104; famdias, 93 c. 

Patrial pronouns, 177 (8), 188. 

Patronymics, 277, 278. 

Pecuniae, as genitive of penalty, 
367 a. 

Peierd, 69 (5), 301 (8). 

Pelagns, gender of, 98 (2) ; plur. of, 
98 c. 

Penalty, how expressed, 367 a, b. 

Penes, with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 
559 (16). 

Pensl, as gen. of price, 372 a. 

Penthemirneris, as part of a verse, 
605 d; as a caesura, 608 6. 

Penult(s), 25 N (1) ; quantity of, 
certain, 51. 

Per, with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 



559 (17) ; form in comp., 301 (8) ; 
intensive force in comp., 295 N. 

Perceiving, verbs of, mood with, 
533 (1) ; with pres. part., 543 b. 

Perduim, etc., 241 c. 

Perfect stem, 208,210; formation 
in 3d conj., 231; in other conj., 
218 ; v omitted in parts from, 
228. 

Perfect, tense, 199, 462 ; historical 
and perf. def., 462 (1) ; old subj. 
form in -sim, 228 d ; quan- 
tity of dissyllabic perfects, 51 ; 
" gnomic," 463 a ; with postquam, 
etc., 469 ; otherwise, 470 ff., 471; 
distinction betw. perf. and pres. of 
the subj. in certain uses, 472 c, 
473 a, 476 (2) b, 481 a', 482 6, 
526 ; subj. for impera., 472 6, 529 
(1) a ; infin., how used, 538, 539; 
participle, 544 ; with habeo, 547 
c; of dep. verbs, 544 a, b; active 
meaning in certain other verbs, 
206 a, 249 (1) ; for pluperfect, 
469 ; perfect participle stem, 208, 
211. 

Period, 594 ff. ; difference bet. 
periodic and non-periodic sentence, 
596 a. 

Periphrastic conjugations, 229. 

Permdqno, as abl. of price, 408 a. 

Pernox, 155 (6). 

Personal, pronouns, 177 (1), 178; 
omission of, 316 a, 317 ; plur. for 
sing, in 1st person, 443; 3d, sup- 
plied by demonstr-, 447 ; endings 
of the verb, 213. 

Person, of verbs, 201 ; of the im- 
perative, 201 a ; second used in- 
definitely, 472 a, 474 c, 477 d (1 ), 
529 b; of verb, with subj. of diff. 
pers., 322 ; of verb, a rel. clause, 
323. 

Peto, cases with, 394 (2) a. 

Ph, 11 iii. F ; sound of, 18 g. 

Phalaeeian verse, 649. 

Pherecratic verse, 644, 648. 

Phonetic decay, n before 58. 

Phrases, 314 b ; order of words in, 
585 ff. 

Piger, declined, 143. 

Piget, impersonal, 250 a; with gen., 
etc., 364 (2), 365 6. 

PUi, as gen. of price, 372 a. 



INDEX. 



445 



Place, constructions of, 425 ff. ; cer- 
tain distinctions in, page 359, 
note. 

Plants, gender of names of, 81 ii. 

Plebes and plebs. 133 tt F. 

Plenty, abl. of, 409. 

Plenus, with abl. or gen., 409, 409 a. 

-plex, multiplicative ending, 286 (1 ). 

Pluperfect tense, 462 (2) ; old subj. 
form in -sem, 228 d ; epistolary, 
470 (1). 

Plural, number, 86; nouns lacking, 
138 ; nouns used only in, 139 ; 
list of nouns with cliff, meaning in 
sing, and plur., 140; plur. of cliff. 
gender from sing., 135 ; used for 
sing., 437; nos for ego, 443; of 
verbs or adj., with collective nouns, 
etc., 346 ff. ; of abstract nouns, 
437 (3). 

Plurinn, as gen. of price, 372; plu- 
rimo, as abl. of price, 408 a. 

-plus, proportional adjective ending, 
286 (2). 

Plus, declined, 153 ; compared, 169 ; 
with or without quant, 416 c; as 
gen. of price, 372. 

Poematis, nom., 103/; dat. and abl. 
plur., 125 (4). 

Pondo, indecl., 137 (1). 

Pone, with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 
559 (18). 

Pono, with abl. and in, 431 c. 

Posco, with two ace, 394 (2); 
quantity of the first 6, 237 a. 

Position, quantity by, 28, 29 ; in 
early verse, 609 (1) d, 641 b; em- 
phasis affected by, 584 ff. 

Positive degree, 164 (1). 

Possessive, pronouns, 177 (7), 186; 
used for gen. of personals, 358 
(2) ; in appos. with a genitive, 347 
(2) ; with refert and interest, 369 ; 
omission of, 444 ; position of, 444, 
587 ; compounds, 295 a. 

Possum, conjugated, 216 ; indie, in 
contrary to fact conditions, 477 
c (cf. 474 d) ; possum for possem, 
474 d N ; non possum quin, etc., 
499 a. 

Post, with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 
559 (19) ; as adv. with abl. in ex- 
pressions of time, 559 (19), (3) f; 
case with comp. of, 377. 



Postquam, moods with, 506, 508 
n 2 ; preference for perf. tense, 
469. 

Posterior, compared, 170 (2). 

Postridie, with gen., 355 (5) b ; with 
quam, 507. 

Postulo, case with, 394 (2) a. 

Potential subjunctive, 474. 

Potior (verb), irreg. forms of, 227 a; 
with abl., 419 ; with ace, 419 a ; 
with gen., 419 b ; use of gerundive, 
cf. 550 a. 

Potior (adj.), compared, 170 (3). 

Pot is, 155 (5). 

Potus, active meaning of, 206 a, 
233 F 3. 

Prae, with abl., 430 ; meanings of, 
561 (7) ; intensive force in comp., 
295 b n ; quality in certain comp., 
39 a ; case with verbs, comp. with, 
377. 

Praenomina, 686 a; abbreviations 
of, 666 d. 

Praesens, declined, 154. 

Praeter, with ace, 429 ; meanings 
of, 559 (20). 

Predicate, 309 (2) ; nom. or ace, 
327 ff. ; agreeing in gender and 
number with its noun, 329 ; adj., 
334; dat. instead of, 331 (1); 
verbs used with, 328 ; case of, 
with licet, etc., 531c; with com- 
plementary infin., 329 b, 532 b ; 
with verbs of saying, 534 b ; with 
abl. absol., 422 d (4). 

Prepositions, 74 (6) ; with ace, 429 ; 
with abl., 430 ; with ace and abl., 
431 ; forms in comp., 301 ; mean- 
ings of, 558 ff. ; inseparable, 302 ; 
use as adverbs, 298 a, 559 (foot- 
notes) ; proclitic in accent, 36 ; po- 
sition of, 589 ; placed after their 
nouns, 431 d, e. 

Present stem, 209 ; formation in 
1st, 2d, and 4th conj., 218 (1) a; 
in 3d conj., 230. 

Present, tense, 199, 200 (1),461; 
histor. use, 466 ; denoting cus- 
tomary action, 464; of general 
truths, 463 ; of extant writers, 
465; with dum, 468; retained 
after past tense in indirect dis- 
course, 516 a; with iam dudum, 
etc., 467; infin., used how, 538; 



446 



INDEX. 



particip. declined, 154; use of, 
543. 

Priapean verse, 648 (2). 

Price, abl of, 40S ; yen. of, 371, 
372. 

Pndie, with gen., 355 (5) b ; with 
quam, 507. 

Primary, suffixes, 255 a; tenses, 
200 (1). 

Primitive words, 252 ; examples of, 
256. 

Principal, parts of verbs, 220, 221 ; 
clauses, 314 (1). 

Principio, as abl. of time, 424 b. 

Prior, compared, 170 (1) ; primus 
for " first part of," 442 ; prior, 
refers to two only, 161 d; uses of 
primus with subject, object, etc., 
compared, 557 i. 

Priusquam, moods with, 505. 

Pro, with abl., 430; meanings of, 
561 (S) ; original d retained in, 
302 (3) ; with abl. for pred. noun, 
331 (2) ; quantity of compounds 
and derivatives of, 306. 

Profesti dies, 660 (6). 

Prohibeo, constr. with, 413. 

Prohibitions, 472, 528, 529. 

Proinde, accent of, 35 b ; use of, 
570. 

Promising, verbs of, tense of, infin. 
with, 533 (5). 

Pronouns, 74 (3); pers., 177 (1) ; 
decl., 178 ; demons., 177 (2) ; dec!., 
180; uses of, 181, 450; rel., 177 
(4); decl., 183, 184; agreement 
of, 342 ff. ; interro?., 177 (5) ; 
decl., 183, 184 ; indef., 177 (6) ; 
decl., 183, 184; intens., 177 (3); 
decl., 182 ; possess., 177 (7) ; decl., 
186; patrial, 177 (8), 188; com- 
pound, 185 ; with part, gen., 355 
(5) ; peculiarities in use of, 443 
ff. ; correl., 187 ; omitted with abl. 
absolute, 422 c. 

Pronunciation, 2 i., 3 ff . ; of rowels, 
16; of diphthongs, 17; of conso- 
nants, 18. 

Prope, with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 
559 (21). 

Proper nouns, 76 i. 

Propior, compared, 170 (1) ; propior, 
etc., with ace, 390 (4) ; with dat., 
389. 



Proportional numerals, 286 (2). 

Propter, with ace, 429; meanings 
of, 559 (22). 

Prosody. See Versification. 

Prdsnicere, with dat. and ace, in 
cliff, senses, 378. 

Prosum, 215 d. 

Protasis, n before 476. 

Protraction of long syllables in 
certain kinds of verse, 613 a, 645 
ff. 

Prooidere, with dat. and ace in diff. 
senses, 378. 

Prociso, clauses of, 504. 

-pse, -pte, enclitics, 35 a. 

Pudet, impersonal, 250 a ; with 
gen., etc., 364 (2), 365 b. 

Punishing, verbs of, constr. with, 
367 a, b. 

Pure syllables, 25 x 2. 

Purpose, expressed by, ut, etc., with 
subj., 482 (1) ; relative clause, 
482 (2) ; gerund or gerundive 
with ad or causa, 551; fut. part., 
545 a ; supine with verbs of mo- 
tion, 554 (2); infin. (poet.), 536; 
different expressions for, com- 
pared, 556; dat. of, 385. 

Pythiambie verse, 651, 652. 

Qua . . . qua, 563 (1) b. 

Quaero, constr. with, 394 (2) a. 

Quaeid, old form of quaero, 249 (9). 

Quality, denoted by adj., 74 (2); 
gen. of, 356; abl. of, 411. 

Quam, withcompar., 416 a, c; with 
superb, 164 c ; with plus, minus, 
etc., 416 c; with subj. clauses, 
498, 516 e ; with infin. clauses, 
516 e; with ante, 505; with post, 
506; with other expressions of 
time, 507. 

Quamquam, moods with, 479, 4S0 ; 
without verb, 480 c ; meaning 
"and yet," 480 b. 

Qua?m-is~ moods with, 479. 480 ; with- 
out verb, 480 c ; meaning '• how- 
ever much," 480 a. 

Qnandoquidem, 308. 

Quanti, as gen. of price, 372. 

Quantity/26 ; of vowels, 37 ff. ; of 
syllables, 27 ff. ; natural, 27 ; by 
position, 28, 29 ; general rules of, 
37-44; special rules of, 45-53; 



INDEX. 



447 



nouns and adverbs of, with part, 
gen., 355 (1), (2) ; hidden quanti- 
ties, 37 n 2. 

Quasi-cornpounds, 300, a, b, c. 

Quasi, 308; mood with, 481 (2); 
primary tenses with, 481 a. 

-que, enclitic, 35 a, 590 /; ,• use and 
position of, 562 (2), 590 b; at- 
tached to last word of a series, 

564 a ; after neque, 565 d ; que 
. . . que, etc., 563 a. 

Queis and quls, old forms for quibus, 

184 d. 
Queo, conjugated, 249 (7). 
Questions, 574 ff. ; double, 565, 

565 a, 580, 581; indirect, 518; 
direct, in indirect discourse, 515 
(2) ; short direct, quoted, 516 c. 

Qui, declined, 181; rel., interrog., 
and indef., 183, 184 6; as abl., 
184, 184c; as connective, 451. 

Quia, moods with, 519 ; non quia, 
521. 

Qulcumque, declension of, 185 ; mood 
with, 501 b. 

Quid tibi vis, quid huic hominl facias, 
etc., 381 a (cf. also, 412 a). 

Q'dilam, declension of, 185 c ; use 
of, 459. 

Quidem, 308; use of, 572; position 
of, 590 a. 

Quilibet, use of, 454 ; verb part in- 
flected, 454 a. 

Quln, with subj. of result, 483 (.3) ; 
with verbs of hindering, 493 (2) 
(cf. 499) ; non quln, 521 ; with 
pres. indie, equiv. to command, 
527 e. 

Quis, declined, 184 ; difference be- 
tween noun and adj forms, 184 
b; disting. from uter, 460. 

Quisnam, 185 b. 

Quispiam, 185 c ; use of, 458. 

Quisquam, 185 c ; use of, 454. 

Quisque, 185 c; use of, 184/; in ap- 
position, 325 d. 

Quisquis, declension of, 185 ; mood j 
with, 501 b. 

Quids, 185 c ; use of, 454 ; verb 
part inflected, 454 a. 

Quo, as adverb of direction, 187, 
355 (3); with subj. of, purpose, 
482 (3) ; non quo, 521 ; quo . . . 
eo {hoc, etc.), 415. 



Quoad, moods with, 502 ff. 

Quod, causal, moods with, 519 ; 

verb of saying or thinking with, 

put in subj., 520; restrictive, 500 

(2)c; quod si, 451 a; meaning 

" the fact that," 540 (4). 
Quoius and quoi, for cuius and cui, 

185 N. 
Quom, old form of cum, 59 c, 509 ff. 
Quominus, with verbs of hindering, 

etc., 493 (2). 
Quonia.m, moods with, 519. 
Quoque, distinguished from etiam, 

573 ; place of, 573, 590 a. 
Quot, 157 (1) ; correlative, 187. 
Quotation, indirect, 514 ff. 
Quotiens, 157 (4). 

R, euphonic changes of, 69 (5), 71, 
72. 

Rastrum, plur. of, 135 (3). 

Ratione, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). 

Ratus, in pres. meaning, 544 a. 

-re, ending of 2d pers. sing, passive, 
213 (I), 223. 

Re-, inseparable prefix, d retained in, 
302 (3). 

Reciprocal relation, how expressed, 
449. 

Recordor, cases with, 365 a. 

Reckoning, Roman modes of, 660 
ff. 

Recuso, constr. with, 493 (2) a. 

Redundant, nouns, 134 (4) ; adj., 
155 (7). 

Reduplication, in pres. stem, 230 
b; in perf. stem, 231 d ; of com- 
pounds, 231 d (3) ; quantity of 
vowel, 231 d (2). 

Refert, with gen., 368 ff. ; with mea, 
tua, etc., 369 ; with other con- 
structions, 369 b. 

Reflexive, pronoun, 179 ; uses of, 
445 ff. ; in indirect discourse, 445 
a; verbs, 193 (3) a, b. 

Ttegnum, declined, 95. 

Rego, conjugated, 222, 223. 

Regular verbs, 217 ff. ; paradigms 
of, 222, 223. 

Relative, adverbs, mood with, 482 
(2), 483 (2); pronouns, 177 (4), 
183 ff. ; agreement of, 342 ff. ; to 
express "so-called," 452; person 
of, 323 ; as connectives, 451, 591 j 



448 



INDEX. 



clauses of purpose, 482 (2) ; of 
result, 483 (2) ; of characteristic, 

500 (2); as protases, 500 (2) c, 

501 c ; restrictive, 500 (2) c ; po- 
sition of, 596 (2) ; in infiu., 516 d. 

Reminiscor, case with, 365. 

Repeated action, how expressed, 
464; as general condition, 477 d. 

Res, declined, 132 ; certain uses of, 
437 a N, 439 (4) a. 

Rests in verse, 613 b. 

Resolution of syllables in verse, 
618 (2). 

Restrictive clauses, 500 (2) c. 

Result, clauses of, 483 ; substan- 
tive clauses of, 493 ff. ; use of 
tenses in, 483 c, 524 a (1) ; posi- 
tion of, 596 (2). 

Rhythm, 607 N. 

Rhythmical sentence, 599 a. 

-rimiis, superl. in, 166. 

Rilu, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). 

Rivers, gender of names of, 80 ii. 

~ro-, noun stems in, 97 ; diminutive 
formations from, 259 (3) ; adj. 
stems in, 143, 144. 

Road, with two ace, 394 (2). 

Roots, 56, 57 ; strong and weak 
forms of, 253. 

Vrw6-, derivatives from, 255 N. 

Rus, defective, 111 x 2 ; used like 
names of towns, 426 a. 

-rus, fut. part, ending, 206, 211 b. 

S, sound of, 18 ; feeble sound at end 
of words, 18 d ; euphonic changes 
of, 67, 69 (1). 69 (5), 69 (6) hi., 
71 ; elision of final, in early verse, 
609 (1) d ; as nom. ending,' 90 (1) ; 
as stem ending, 105 ff. ; ace. plur. 
ending, 90 (6). 

Saepe, compared, 176 ; quantity of 
e in, 46 (2). 

Sal, quantitv of vowel, 47 a, 103 a ; 
gender of\ 120 (3). 

Salved, conjugation of, 249 (10) b. 

Sane, use of, 572. 

Sapphic verse, 646 ; greater, 646 (2). 

Satago, 298 b. 

Satis, with part, gen., 355 (2). 

Satis/acid, 298 b, 300 b. 

Satur, 144 n. 

Saturnian verse, 642. 

Saying, verbs of, constr. with, 



490 (2), 515 ff., 533 (1) ; passive 

with pred. nom., 534, 534 a. 
Scanning, 611. 
Scazon, 628 f. 
Sddl, 231 (3) d. 
Scito, scitote, u.-ed for the wanting 

pres., 227 e, 527 b. 
-sco, verb ending (inceptive) 230 e, 

289; quantitv of vowel before, 

237 a. 
Se, suus, declension of, 179, 186 ; use 

of, 445 ff. 
Second, decl. of nouns, 95 ff. ; of 

adj., 143 ff. ; conjugation, 217 ff., 

234. 
Secondary tenses. See Historical. 
Secundus, formation of, 281, 559 

(23) ; secundum as prep, with ace, 

429 ; meanings of, 559 (23). 
Secutus, with pres. meaning, 544 a. 
Sed, use of, 566 (1). 
Sedeo, sedo, 287 b. 
-sein, old pluper. subj. ending, 228 d. 
Semi-deponents, 196. 
Semi-vowels, 9 i., 10. 
Sendrius, iambic, 623, 624. 
Sendti, senatuos, as gen. forms, 128 

(1), 128 (2), 131 F. 
Senex, declension of, 111 (1) ; com- 
pared, 172 (2). 
Sens, participle of esse, 215 b. 
Sentence (s), 309 ff. ; classification 

of, 311, 315 ; connecting of suc- 

cessives, 597. 
Separation, abl. of, 413 ; verbs of, 

compounded with ab, de, etc., 380. 
Sereno, as abl. absol., 422 c f. 
Sestertius, 663. 
| Short syllable, 26, 27. 
j si or -sin, ending of Greek datives 

plural, 124. 
| Si, moods with, 476 ff . ; introducing 

indirect questions, 518 d. 
Sibilant, 10 ii. 
Sic, 187, 557 d. 
Sicubi, 308. 
Siem, sies, etc., 215 c. 
Silentio, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). 
sim, old perfect subjunc. ending, 

228 d. 
Similis, compared, 167 ; with gen., 

360; with dat., 362 (4), 389. 
Simple words, 251, 254 ff. ; sentence, 

311 (1). 



INDEX. 



449 



Simul, with abl., 431 17; simul . . . 
simul, 563 (1) b; simul ac, etc., 
469, 506. 

Sine, with abl., 430; meanings of, 
561 (9). 

Singular number, 86; for plural, 
435, 436 ; words used only in, 
138 ; words lacking, 139. 

sio, abstract ending, 272, 274(2). 

Siquidem, 308, 572 c. 

Slquis, 185 c. 

Sis for si lis, 242 a. 

Sive, use of, 565. 

-so, old future ending, 228 d ; eu- 
phonic for to, 71, 232, 255 ff. 

Soled, semi-deponent, 196; solitus in 
pres. meaning, 544 a ; solito with 
compar., 416 b. 

Solas, declension of, 145, 146. 

Sonants, 13 i. 

Sotadean verse, 634. 

Sounds of the letters, 15 ff. ; vowels, 
16 ; diphthongs, 17 ; consonants, 
18. 

-sor, ending of nouns of agency, 
270. 

-sorium, noun ending, 276 (5). 

Space, ace. of, 423. 

Spe, as abl. after comparatives, 
416 6. 

Specification, ace. of, 398 ; abl. of, 
412. 

Specus, gender, 127. 

Spirants, 10 ii. 

Spondaic verse, 614 (2). 

Sponte, 137 (4) a. 

Stems, 54 ff . ; in a-, 91, 143 ff., 
217 ff. ; in o-, 95, 143 ff. ; in i-, 
108 ff., 150, 151 ; in 1-, 217 ff. ; 
ending in a consonant, 100 ff., 
152 ff., 217 ff. ; originally in s-, 
105, 106, 109; in a-, 99, 126, 
141 f 3, 217 ff. ; in e-, 132, 217 ff. ; 
three special stems in verb, 208 ff. ; 
formation of stems in 1st, 2d, and 
4th conj., 218 ; of pres. stem in 3d 
conj., 219(1), 230; of perf. stem 
in 3d conj., 219 (1), 231 ; of 
perf. part, stem in 3d conj., 219 
(2), 232; derivative stems, 255 a. 

Steti,stiti, 231 d, 231 d (1). 

Strong and weak forms of roots, 
253. 

Strophe or stanza, 612. 



Suadeo, with dat., 376. 

Sub, with ace. and abl., 431 ; mean- 
ings of, 560 (2) ; form in com])., 
301 (9) ; lessening force in comp., 
295 b N. 

Subject, 310 (1); nom., 316; 
omitted, 316 a, 317, 318; ace, 
401, 530 ; of histor. infin., 530 a ; 
position of, 596 n 3. 

Subjective genitive, 353 (1) ; adj. 
or possess, pron. used for, 358 
(1), (2). 

Subjunctive mood, 198 (2), and note 
before 472 ; in independent 
clauses, 472-475 ; hortatory, 472 ; 
potential, 474 ; optative, 473 ; 
dubitative, 475 ; in dependent 
clauses, 476 ff. ; in conditional 
clauses, 476, 477; in concessive 
clauses, with etsi, etc., 478 ; with 
quamvis, etc., 479, 480 ; in com- 
parative clauses, with tamquam si, 
velut si, etc., 481 ; with quavi, 498, 
516 e ; in clauses of purpose, 482 ; 
of result, 483 ; substantive clauses, 
484 ff. ; with verbs of fearing, 492 ; 
in relative clauses (characteristic), 
500, 501 ; without at, 491 ; in 
temporal clauses with antequam, 
etc., 505 ; with dam, etc., 502, 
503 ; with postquam, 506 ; with 
cum, 509 ff. ; with ubi, etc., 506, 
508 ; in clauses of proviso, 504 ; 
in causal clauses with quod, etc., 
519 ; with non quo, etc., 521 ; of 
died, puto, etc., introducing a 
cause, 520: in indirect questions, 
518 ; in indirect discourse, 514 ff . ; 
giving other people's ideas, 522 ; 
by attraction (so called), 523 ; 
tenses of, 472 c, 473 a, 474 a, 
475 a, 476 (2) b, 477 a, b, 481 a, 
482 b, 483 c, 499 d, 524, 525. 

Subordinate clauses, 314 (2) ; in 
indirect discourse, 515 (1); re- 
tained in indicative, 516 f; in 
contrary to fact conditions, 499 
d, e ; position of, 596. 

Substantive clauses with at, ne, 
etc., 484 ff. ; with quod, etc., 

540 (4) ; with the infin., 515 ff., 
531, 533 ; as indirect questions, 
518 ; different kinds compared, 

541 ff. 



450 



INDEX. 



Subter, with ace. and abl., 431 ; 
meanings of, 560 (3). 

Subtraetive expressions in nume- 
rals, 161 e, 162 (3). 

Sid. See se. 

Suffixes, 56; primary and secon- 
dary, 255 a ; lists of common, 255 
(1), (2) ; words without, 254. 

Sum, conjugated, 215 ; with gen., 
357; with dat., 384; in perfect 
tenses of passive, 211 ; in peri- 
phrastic conjugations, 229; with 
adj. governing substantive clause 
with ut, etc., 494a,497; indica- 
tive in conditions contrary to fact, 
477 c (cf. 474 c?). 

Supellex, 111 (4). 

Super, with ace. and abl., 431 ; 
meanings of, 560 (4). 

Superior, compared, 170 (2); high- 
est part, top of, 442. 

Superlative, 164 (3) ; special use 
of, 164 (3) b, c, 442; formed wi h 
mdxime, 173 ; wanting, 172. 

Supines, 205 ; mechanical similar- 
ity of basis with pert, and fut. 
part., 211 b ; uses of ace, 554 ; 
to denote purpose, 554 (2) ; uses 
of abl., 555 ; quantity of dissyl- 
labic, 51. 

Supra, with ace, 429; meanings of, 
559 (24). 

Surds, 13 ii. 

Sus, declined, 102. 

Suus. See se. 

Swearing, verbs of, tense of infin. 
with, 533 (5). 

Syllables, rules for dividing, 19 ff. ; 
quantity of, 28 ff . ; of vowels in 
final, 45 ff. ; in certain others, 51, 
52 ; last either long or short in 
verse, 610 ; in early verse, 636 ff . 

Synaeresis, 609 (2). 

Synaioepha, 609 (1). 

Synapheia, 609 (5). 

Syncope, 63 ii., 659 (29). 

Synecdochieal ace, 398 a. 

Syntax, 2 iv., 309 ff. 

Systole, 609 (1) 6 n. 

T, sound of, 18; euphonic changes 
of, 65, 66 iii'_, iv., 69 i., ii. (2), 'iii., 
71. 

-to, abstract noun ending, 273 (2). 



Taedel, impers., 250 a; with gen., 
etc , 364 (2), 365 b. 

Tarn, 187, 557 d. 

Tametsi, 478. 

Tamen, use of, 569 (2). 

Tamquam, 481. 

Tanti, as gen. of price, 372. 

Tantum abest ut, 499 c. 

-tds, noun ending, 109, 273 (2). 

Teaching, verbs of, constr. with, 
394 (2), 407 b. 

Tenif)erare, with dat. and ace in 
diff. senses, 378. 

Temporal, numerals, 286 (3) ; 
clauses, 502 ff. ; uses of tenses in, 
524. 

Tendency, adj. of, 261, 267. 

Tense(s), 199; primarv and se- 
condary, 200; uses of, 461 ff. ; of 
subjune, 524 ff. ; of imper., 527 b, 
c; of infin., 538, 539; of parti- 
cip., 543 ff. ; table of, formed from 
the three stems, 212. 

Tenus, with abl, 430; with gen., 
431 /; meanings of, 561 (10); 
placed after its noun, 431 d. 

4er, adverbs in, 174, 557 a; nouns 
of agency in, 270 a. 

Terra marique, 426 a. 

Terunci, as gen. of price, 372 a. 

Tete, 179 c. 

Tetrameter, dactylic, 616, 654 (4) ; 
anapaestic, 630 (2). 

Th, aspirate, 11 iii. ; sound of, 18 g. 

Thematic vowel, 217 b. 

Thesis and arsis, 607. 

Thinking, verbs of, constr. with, 
533 (1). 

Third, decl. of nouns, 99 ff. ; of adj. 
148 ff.; conjug.,217ff. 

Thousands, how expressed, 161 h, 
162 d. 

Threatening, verbs of, case with, 
376; tense of infin., 533 (5). 

-tia, -ties, -tio, -tium, abstract end- 
ings, 272 ff. 

Tigris, declension of, 124; gender 
of, 120 (4). 

-tilis, adjective ending, 261. 

Time, adj. of, 264; adverbs of, 
187 ; constructions of, 423 ff . ; id 
aetdtis, etc., 398 b; abl. absol. 
denoting, 422 ; concrete nouns in 
expressions of, 432; mode of 



INDEX. 



451 



reckoning, 660 ; table of, 661 ; 

clauses of, 502 ff . 
Timcre, cases with, 378; moods 

with, 492, 532 a. 
" Too " or " rather," expressed by 

compar., 164 (3) a. 
-tor, ending of nouns of agency, 270. 
-torium, noun ending, 276 (5). 
Tot, 187. 

Totus, 187, 187 f 1 . 
Totus, declension of, 145, 146; of 

place, 426 c. 
Towns, gender of names of, 81 ii., 

loc. constr. of, 426 (2). 
-tr-, -tri-, stems in, 103 e, 108 b. 
Tranquillo, as abl. absol., 422 c F. 
Trans, with ace, 429 ; meanings of, 

559 (25); form in comp., 301 

(10); constr. with verbs comp. 

with, 394 (3). 
Transitive verbs, 190. 
Trees, gender of names of, 81 ii. 
Tres, declension of, 160. 
Trihemimeris, 605 d. 
Trimeter, iambic, 623, 624, 627. 
-trina, -trinum, noun endings, 276 (2). 
-tris, adjective ending, 285. 
-trlx, ending of fern, nouns of 

agency, 270. 
Trochaic verse, 618 ff . 
-hum, noun ending, 258. 
Tu, declined, 178; tute, 179 c. 
-turn, noun ending, 276 (1). 
Turn . . . turn, 563 (1) b. 
Tumullu, as abl. of time, 424 b. 
Tunc and nunc, 187 f 2. 
-tudo, abstract ending, 272, 273 (3). 
-tus, noun ending in 4th declension, 

274 (3); adj. ending, 256 (1); 

perf. part, ending, 214. 
-tus, ending in 3d declension, 273 

Tuns, 186 ; tud, with refert and in- 
terest, 369. 

U, sound of, 16 ; after g, q, or s, 18 
b ; euphonic changes of, 59, 63 ; 
affinity for 1, 59 a ; not allowed 
after v or qu, 59 b, c; quantity of, 
final, 46 ; penult, in verbs, 225 ; 
parasitic, 64 ; representing oe, 60 ; 
retained in certain words, 59 d. 

-u- stems, of nouns, 99, 126; of adj., 
141 f 3 ; of verbs, 217 a. 



Ubl, moods with, 506, 508; perfect 
tense with. 469. 

Ubicumque, ubinam, ubique, ubivls, 
308. 

-ubus, dat. and abl. ending in 4th 
decl., 129. 

-uleus, in diminutives, 259 (4) b. 

-ulls, adjective ending, 262. 

Ullus, declension of, 145, 146 ; use 
_ of, 455. 

Ulterior, compared, 170 (1) ; ultimus, 
_for "last part of," 442. 

Ultra, with ace. 429 ; meanings of, 
559 (26). 

-ulus, -a, -urn, noun and adj. ending, 
257; diminutives in, 259 (2). 

-urn, gen. plur. ending in 3d decl., 
116. 

-urn, gen. plur. ending in 1st and 2d 

_ decl., 93 d,97 (7). 

Uncia, 662. 

-undum, -undus, for later -endum, 
-endus, in gerund and gerundive, 
227 /;. 

Unthematic verbs, 239. 

Unus, declension of, 145, 146 ; plu- 
_ral use of, 161 a. 

Unusquisque, 460 d ; unumquidquid, 
in Plautus, 185 c. 

-uo, verbs in, 287 (especially a). 

-ura, noun ending, 274 (4). 

-mid, desiderative verb ending, 290. 

-urus, in fut. part., 211 b, 214. 

-us, ending of nouns and adj. in 2d 
decl., 95 ; in 4th decl., 126 ; quan- 
tity of final, 50. 

-us, in nouns of 3d declension, 102, 
_106 d, 273 (2). 

Usque, with ace, 431 g. 

Usus, with abl., 417. 

Ut = as, 187 ; explanatory or limit- 
ing, 557 f; interrogative = how, 
187; = when, moods with, 506, 
508 n 1 ; in clauses of purpose, 
482 (1); of result, 483 (1); sub- 
stantive clauses, 484 ff. ; conces- 
sive, 479, 480 ; in wishes, 473 ; ut 
. . . ita, 557 e. 

Uter, declension of, 145, 146; dis- 
tinguished from quis, 460. 

Uterque, 146 a ; distinguished from 

^quis, 460; from ambo, 460 a. 

Utilis, cases with, 390 (1). 

Uti. See Ut. 



452 



INDEX. 



Utinam, 308 ; in wishes, 473, 473 b. 
Utor, with abl., 419 ; with ace, 419 

a ; gerundive use of, 550 a. 
Utrum . . .an, 580. 
-utus, adj. ending, 280. 
-uus, adj. ending, 283. 

V, sound of, 18 ; euphonic changes 
of, 68, 69 (6). 

Vacdre, with dat., 381 a. 

Vae, interjec, 583 ; with dat., 391 
(3). 

Value, gen. of. See Gen. of Pi ice. 

Vds, vdsis, 105, 107. 

-ve, enclitic, 35 a, 590 b : use of, 565 b. 

Vel, use of, 565 ; meaning "even,'' 
565 c. 

Velim and vellem, in expressions of 
wishing, 473 c, 491, 527 d. 

Velut, velutl, velut si, moods with, 
481. 

Venit in mentem, 353 d. 

Verba sentiendi et decldrandl, 533 ( 1 ). 

Verbal, nouns and adj., 252 a; ace. 
with, 399; dat. with, 391 (2). 

Verbs, 74 (4), 189 ff. ; moods of, 
197, 198; tenses of, 199,200; 
stems of, 208 ff., 217 ; forma- 
tion of stems of, 218 ff., 230 
ff. ; conjugation of regular, 222, 
223 ; irreg. (unthematic), 239 ff . ; 
trans, and intrans., 189-191 ; 
depon., 195; semi-depon., 196; 
principal parts of, 220, 221 ; im- 
personal, 250 ; defective, 249 ; de- 
rivative, 287 ff. ; compound, 298; 
inceptive (inchoative), 289 ; fre- 
quentative (iterative) and inten- 
sive, 288; intensive (meditative), 
288 (4) ; desiderative, 290 ; di- 
minutive, 291 ; lists of irregularly 
formed, in 1st conj., 233 ; in 2d 
conj., 234; in 4th conj., 238; lists 
of, in 3d conj., 235-237 ; of depon., 
in 3d conj., 236; agreement of, 
316 ff. ; person of, with rel., 323 ; 
position of, 595 ; last place hut 
one in sentence, 599 c. 

Ve.rbum Infinitum, 202 (2) N. 

Vereor, constr. with, 492, 492 b ; 
veritus, in pres. meaning, 544 a. 

Vero, use of, 567, 572 ; position of, 
590 a ; as ablative with compara- 
tive, 416 6. 



Verse, 600 ; different kinds of, 
603 ff . ; names in -drius, 605 (2). 

Verse-accent, 606. 

Versification, 600 ff. 

Versu, without prep., 426 d. 

Verum, use of, 566 ( 1 ) ; verum etiam, 
etc., 563 (2). 

Vescor, with abl., 419; with ace, 
419 a ; gerundive constr. of, 550 
a. 

Vesperl, 136 a. 

Vester, declension of, 186 ; vestrum 
and vestrl, 178 f; not used for 
tuus, 443 a. 

Veto, mood with, 533 (3). 

Vetus, declension of, 154; superla- 
tive of, 166 a. 

[Vicis], declined, 137 (4). 

Video, constr. with., 533 (1), 543 b. 

Vir y declined, 95. 

Virgo, declined, 104. 

Virus, gender of, 96 (2). 

Vis, declined, 110. 

Vocative, 88 (5) ; like nom. except 
sometimes in 2d deck, 90 (3) ; ac- 
cent of, in nouns in -his, 97 (5) a ; 
uses of, 402 ; position of, 592 ; 
not properly a case, 402 n. 

Voice, 193 ff. ; middle voice, 193 
a ; impersonal use of passive of 
intrans., 194, 387. 

Volgus, gender of, 96 (2). 

Void, conjugated, 242 ; constr. 

with, 487, 489 ff., 533 (3). 
Voluntary agent, abl. of, 406 ; dat. 
of, 383. 

Vds. See Tu. 

Votl, as gen. of penalty, 367 a. 
Vowels, 4 i , 5 ; classified, 5 r 2 
sounds of, 16 ; euphonic changes 
of, 58 ff . ; quantity of final, 45 ff. 
of certain other, 37 ff., 51-53 
225, 237 a ; stem vowel length 
ened in perfect, 231 c ; long vowels 
shortened through loss of accent, 
44 a (2) ; other long vowels short- 
ened, 62, 635 ff. 
Vowel stems, of nouns, 89, 91, 95, 
108 ff., 126, 132 ; of adj., 141 ff., 
150-152 ; of verbs, 217 a, 240, 
241, 248. 

"Want, abl. of, 414 ; gen. with cer- 
tain verbs of, 414 a, b. 



INDEX. 



453 



Warning, verbs of, cases with, 366, 
367 c; moods with, 487, 489 ff. 

Way by which, abl. of, 407 c. 

Weights, Roman, 662, 664. 

Winds, gender of names of, 80 ii. 

Wish., subjunc. of, 473 ; with velirn, 
etc., 473 c. 

Wishing, verbs of, moods with, 
486, 489, 491, 533 (3). 

Words, division into syllable-, 19 ff.; 
formation of, 251 ff. ; primitive 
and derivative, 252 ; compound, 
251 (3), 294 ff. ; order of, 584 ff. ; 
neuter when treated as such, 82 ii. ; 
nominative when so treated, 349 
(2); without suffixes, 254. 



Writers, Latin, list of the principal, 
668. 

X, double consonant, 9 iii. ; equiva- 
lent to cs or gs, 3 e, 12 a. 

Y, onlv in Greek words, 3 ; sound 

of, 18. 
Year, how expressed, 161 i., 424 d 

660 (6). 
Yes and no, how expressed, 582. 
-ys, nouns in, 124; quantity of, 

final, 50. 

Z, only in Greek words, 3 ; equiva- 
lent to ds, 12 a ; sound of, 18. 



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